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The  Correlation  of 

Vocational  and  Liberal  Education 

Through  English  Language 

and  Literature 


MARY  Bl^l.li"   MOO!  ON 


A  TIIESfS 

Presented  to  the  Faculty  ot  the  Graduate  College,  University  ot  Nebraska 

in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  Requirements  for  the  Degree  of  Master 

of  Arts,   and  the  Graduate  Teacher's  Diploma, 

I)op.\rtincnt  of  F\n^ii'^h  J  .'^ritnj,i<:',t 

-uui    1  .iti-rat  MK 


J.ONG  ANI>  COM  PAX 

l.KUCATIONAL  PUBLISH i.-i: 

UN<"0LN'      NtBK. 


The  Correlation  of 

Vocational  and  Liberal  Education 

Through  English  Language 

and  Literature 


By 

MARY  BELLE  HOOTON 


A  THESIS 


Presented  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  College,  University  of  Nebraska, 

in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  Requirements  for  the  Degree  of  Master 

of  Arts,  and  the  Graduate  Teacher's  Diploma, 

Department  of  English  Language 

and  Literature 


Lincoln,  Nerraska 
June,  1917 


*  •  •     ,  ,' 


/ 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 


Copyright,  1918,  by 

MARY  BELLE  HOOTON 

All  Rights  Reserved 


LONG  AND  COMPANY 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHEJRS 
LINCOLN,  NXBB. 


CONTENTS 


Pages 

OUTLINE  5-7 

Part  I 
INTRODUCTION .  11-19 

Part  II 
EXISTING  CONDITIONS 23-54 

Part  III 
THE  PROBLEM 57-83 

Part  IV 
COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN   ENGLISH  ....  87-115 

Part  V 
CONTRIBUTIONS 119-159 

Part  VI 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 163-166 


6673G8 


OUTLINE 

Introduction. 

A.  English  Language  and  Literature  in  Relation  to  Secondary 
Education. 

1.    Agitation  for  Reorganization  of  English  begins: 

a.  National  Education  Association. 

(1)  Reports  of  Committees  on  Secondary  Schools: 
(a)  Committee  of  Ten;  (b)  Committee  of  Fifteen; 
(c)  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Require- 
ments. 

b.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

(1)  Report  (being  printed)  of  Joint  Committee  on 
the  Reorganization  of  English  in  the  Secondary 
Schools — Representing  the:  (a)  National  Educa- 
tion Association;  (b)  National  Council  of 
Teachers  of  English. 

B.  Education. 

1.  Liberal  Education. 

a.  Develops,    primarily,    the    intellectual    and    aesthetic 
capacities  of  the  pupil's  mind. 

b.  Fits  the  individual  to  live  among  his  fellow  men. 

2.  Vocational  Education. 

a.  Promotes,  primarily,  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  to  earn 
a  living. 

b.  Increases,  primarily,  the  pupil's  information  or  knowledge. 

C.  Agitation  for  Reorganization  op  Public  School  System. 

1.    Bulletin  1916.     No.  8. 

D.  Vocational  Literature  and  Readings  in  Relation  to  Second- 
ary Education. 

1.  Agitation  concerning  Vocational  Education  with  reference  to 
Readings  in  English  Language  and  Literature  was  begun  by: 

a.    Frank  Parsons  of  Boston,  etc. 

2.  From  the  agitation  a  wave  of  investigation  swept  over  a  part 
of  our  country,  concerning  so-called  Vocational  Studies  and 
Readings  in  English  Language  and  Literature.  The  results 
were  embodied  in  the  reports  of: 

a.  Michigan  Schools Grand  Rapids. 

b.  Minnesota  Schools High  Schools  of  the  State. 

c.  Nebraska  Schools Lincoln. 

3.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

a.    Vocational  Guidance  through  English  Composition. 
(1)    Bulletin  1914.     No.  14. 

4.  Ideas  not  yet  clear  as  to  what  material  is  best  to  use  owing  to: 

a.  Ignorance  of  English  teachers  as  to  subject  matter. 

b.  Carelessness  and  indifference  as  to  whether  Vocational 
matter  in  English  should  be  taught,  etc. 

5 


5.    The  present  trend  of  the  movement  is  to: 
,  a.    Enlighten  teachers  as  to  the  best  Vocational  Literature, 

or  Reading  Matter. 

b.  Benefit  the  pupil  by  correlating  Vocational  and  Liberal 
Education  through  English  Language  and  Literature. 

c.  Protect  and  aid  the  pupil  while  he  is  preparing  to 
become  an  efficient  member  of  society. 

II.  Existing  Conditions. 

A.    In  some  parts  of  United  States  as  shown  by: 

1.  Reports  of  School  Surveys  of  the: 

a.  Minnesota  Schools. 

(1)    Minneapolis  Survey — for  Vocational  Education. 

b.  Oregon  Schools. 

(1)    Portland  Survey — of  Pubhc  School  System. 

c.  Utah  Schools. 

(1)    Salt  Lake  City  Survey— of  Public  School  System. 

d.  Virginia  Schools. 

(1)    Richmond  Survey — for  Vocational  Education. 

2.  Reports  of  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  and  the  N.  E.  A. 

3.  Questionnaires  "A"  and  "B". 

III.  The  Problem. 

A.  All  phases  of  correlating  Vocational  and  Liberal  Education 
THROUGH  English  Language  and  Literature  are  not  to  be 
discussed  in  this  thesis.    Only  the  two  phases,  as  to  the: 

1.  Subject  matter  of  Vocational  and  General  Literature. 

2.  Method  or  process  of  correlating  these  two  kinds  of  Literature 
which  are  of  the  Vocational  and  Liberal  types  of  Education 
are  to  be  considered. 

B.  Correlation  of  Vocational  and  General  Literature  through: 

1.  Study  material  in  English  Language  and  Literature. 

2.  Reading  material  in  English  Language  and  Literature. 

3.  Composition,  or  themes. 

a.  Oral. 

b.  Written. 

C.  Method  or  process  of  correlation  is  to: 

1.  Develop  the  cultural  forces,  or  sensibilities  of  the: 

a.  Vocationally  trained  pupil. 

b.  Liberally  trained  pupil. 

2.  Increase  the  knowledge  or  information  of  the: 

a.  Vocationally  trained  pupil. 

b.  Liberally  trained  pupil. 

3.  Develop,  primarily,  the  capacity  of  the  vocationally  trained 
pupil  to: 

a.  Earn  a  living. 

b.  Become  an  efficient  member  of  society. 


IV.  Course  of  Study  in  English. 

A.   Outline  for  twelve  courses  in  English: 

1.  Prevocational  and  Junior  High  School,    (three  years.) 

a.    Grades: 

VII  B*;  VII  A;  VIII  B;  VIII  A;   IX  B;    IX  A. 

2.  Senior  High  School,   (three  years.) 

a.    Grades: 

X  B,  X  A;   XI  B,  XI  A;  XII  B,  XII  A. 

V.  Contributions. 

VI.  Bibliography. 


♦This  is  the  lowest  grade  in  the  Junior  High  School. 

7 


PART  I 
INTRODUCTION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  early  secondary  schools,  in  this  country,  were  patterned  after  like 
schools  in  England.  The  high  school,  as  it  exists  to-day,  was  largely  developed 
as  in  substitution  for  the  old  academy.  This  was,  primarily,  a  preparatory 
school  for  colleges,  and  its  course  of  study  was  predetermined  by  that  fact. 
In  the  Latin-Grammar  Schools  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries 
only  a  few  subjects  were  admitted  since  Latin  and  Greek  were  the  groundwork 
of  the  college.  To-day,  in  any  high  school  which  fits  for  college,  there  are  as 
many  different  subjects  as  there  are  different  lines  of  college  study.  The  old- 
time  uniformity  has  disappeared.  The  problem  of  preparing  a  course  for  the 
many  students  who  will  separate  into  widely  different  fields  in  future  study 
or  vocation  had  become  complex,  and  in  many  of  the  smaller  schools,  it  is 
well-nigh  unsolvable.  One  of  the  fundamental  questions  relating  to  the 
high  school  of  to-day  is  whether  its  education  should  be  cultural  or  vocational. 
My  idea  of  the  primary  purpose  of  the  high  school  of  to-day  is  to  give  personal 
culture,  civic  and  moral  development,  physical  efficiency  and  finally  vocational 
efficiency.  Our  secondary  schools  should  train  and  discipline  pupils  to  think 
and  know,  to  perceive  and  interpret,  to  analyze,  at  once  and  fully,  difficult 
tasks  and  questions  and  to  use  good  judgment  through  knowledge.  The 
nation  needs  men  who  have  been  taken  from  the  narrow  surroundings  of  a 
somewhat  simple  life  as  well  as  those  from  the  higher  strata  of  society.  A 
well-rounded  education  includes  the  development  of  the  intellect,  the  sensibil- 
ities, and  the  volitional  powers.  Even  Franklin's  Academy  followed  largely 
the  classical  lines.  He  wrote  and  published  a  pamphlet,  entitled  "Proposals 
Relating  to  the  Education  of  Youth  in  Pennsylvania,"  in  which  he  outlined 
what  presumably  was  his  ideal  of  an  education.  His  ideal  of  education  was 
vocational  in  intent  as  well  as  cultural.     He  says: 

"As  to  their  studies,  it  would  be  well  if  they  could  be  taught  every  thing  that  is  useful  and 
every  thing  that  is  ornamental.  But  art  is  long  and  their  time  is  short.  It  is  therefore  proposed, 
that  they  learn  those  things  that  are  likely  to  be  most  useful  and  most  ornamental,  regard  being 
had  for  the  several  professions  for  which  they  are  intended."  Franklin's  own  predilection  "went 
no  further  than  to  procure  the  means  of  a  good  English  education,"  and  he  particularly  insisted 
in  his  pamphlet  that  the  rector  of  the  school  should  be  "a  correct,  pure  speaker  and  writer  of 
English."  (12). 

By  secondary  education,  I  mean  the  field  of  education  which  lies  between 
the  elementary  education  and  that  of  the  college  and  university,  i.  e.,  the 
public  high  school  of  to-day.  Concerning  the  high  schools,  Carpenter,  Baker 
and  Scott  have  written: 


(12)  Ford,  pp.  106-116. 

11 


"In  the  wonderful  period  of  the  New  England  transcendental  movement,  the  days  of  a  great 
intellectual  awakening  throughout  the  people  at  large,  there  appeared  the  most  striking  educa- 
tional phenomenon  of  the  last  hundred  years  in  America,  the  widespread  and  urgent  demand  for 
local,  free,  well-organized  secondary  instruction.  Beginning  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut, 
the  two  great  sources  of  educational  progress  as  long  as  New  England  retained  its  pre-eminence, 
it  found  its  way  throughout  the  Union  and  resulted  in  every  state  in  the  establishment  of  high 
schools.  Like  the  academy,  the  high  school  was  the  representative  of  two  institutions, — the  old 
Latin  school  and  the  new  school  for  the  people  of  which  Franklin  had  dreamed.  Wherever  the 
high  school  represented  the  Latin  school, — i.  e.,  in  its  classical  course, — the  study  of  Engish 
scarcely  entered  into  the  curriculum;  wherever  it  represented  the  school  for  the  people — i.  e.,  in 
its  so-called  English  or  scientific  course — English  was  a  part  of  the  curriculum;  but  only  to  the 
degree  described  above  in  connection  with  the  academies. 

Up  to  about  1876,  then,  there  was  scarcely  to  be  found,  in  the  United  States,  any  definite, 
well-organized  system  of  secondary  instruction  in  the  mother-tongue.  We  were  virtually  in  the 
same  condition  that  England  now  is,  and  at  least  fifty  years  behind  Germany.  The  Americans 
have  always  been  a  reading  people,  and  there  was  a  growing  interest  among  scholars  and  laymen 
in  the  English  language  and  in  English  literature.  But  only  here  and  there  had  this  penetrated 
into  the  secondary  school  system."  (7) 

It  was  not  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
before  the  elements  which  make  up  our  curriculum  in  English  came  into 
existence.  Declamation  and  oratory,  best  typified  in  lectures  given  at  Harvard 
College  in  1806-1808;  instruction  in  Rhetoric  and  Composition  as  given  in 
several  American  Colleges  during  the  middle  of  the  century;  and  English 
Literature  as  given  in  a  meager  way  about  1875  were  introduced  and  then 
developed  with  great  rapidity.  But  what  do  we  mean  by  literature?  One 
literary  critic  with  considerable  insight  has  said: 

"Popularly,  and  among  the  thoughtless,  it  is  held  to  include  every  thing  that  is  printed 
in  a  book.  Little  logic  is  required  to  disturb  that  definition;  the  most  thoughtless  person  is  easily 
made  aware,  that  in  the  idea  of  literature,  one  essential  element  is, — some  relation  to  a  general 
and  common  interest  of  man,  so  that,  what  applies  only  to  a  local,  or  professional,  or  merely 
personal  interest,  even  though  presenting  itself  in  the  shape  of  a  book,  will  not  belong  to  literature. 
So  far  the  definition  is  easily  narrowed;  and  it  is  as  easily  expanded.  For  not  only  is  much  that 
takes  a  station  in  books  not  literature;  but  inversely,  much  that  really  is  literature  never  reaches 
a  station  in  books.  The  weekly  sermons  of  Christendom,  that  vast  pulpit  literature  which  acts 
so  extensively  upon  the  human  mind — to  warn,  to  uphold,  to  renew,  to  comfort,  to  alarm,  does 
not  attain  the  sanctuary  of  libraries  in  the  ten-thousandth  part  of  its  extent.  The  drama  again, 
as  for  instance,  the  finest  of  Stakespeare's  plays  in  England,  and  all  leading  Athenian  plays  in 
the  noontide  of  the  Attic  stage,  operated  as  literature  on  the  public  mind,  and  were  (according 
to  the  strictest  letter  of  that  term)  published  through  the  audiences  that  witnessed  their  representa- 
tion some  time  before  they  were  published  as  things  to  be  read;  and  they  were  published  in  this 
scenical  mode  of  publication  with  much  more  effect  than  they  could  have  had  as  books,  therefore, 
do  not  suggest  an  idea  co-extensive  and  interchangeable  with  the  idea  of  literature;  since  much 
literature,  scenic,  forensic,  or  didactic  (as  from  lectures  and  public  orators),  may  never  come 
into  books;  and  much  that  does  come  into  books,  may  connect  itself  with  no  literary  interest. i 
But  a  far  more  important  correction,  applicable  to  the  common  vague  idea  of  literature,  is  to  be 
sought — not  so  much  in  a  better  definition  of  literature,  as  in  a  sharper  distinction  of  the  two 
functions  which  it  fulfils.     In  that  great  social  organ,  which,  correctly,  we  call  literature,  there 


(7)  Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott,  p.  46. 

>What  are  called  The  Blue  Books,  by  which  title  are  imderstood  the  folio  Reports  issued 
every  session  of  Parliament  by  committees  of  the  two  Houses,  and  stitched  into  blue  covers, — 
though  often  sneered  at  by  the  ignorant  as  so  much  waste  paper,  will  be  acknowledged  gratefully 
by  those  who  have  used  them  diligently,  as  the  main  well-heads  of  all  accurate  information  as 
to  the  Great  Britain  of  this  day.  As  an  immense  depository  of  faithful  (and  not  superannuated) 
statistics,  they  are  indispensible  to  the  honest  student.  But  no  man  would  therefore  class  the 
Blue  Books  as  literature. 

12 


PROPOSALS 

Relating  to.the 

EDUCATION 

O  F 

YOUTH 

I    N 

PENSILVANIA 

( 

^fcx 

\ 

P  H  I  LAD  ELP  H  lA: 
Printed  in  the  Year,  M.DCC.XLIX. 

TITLE- PAGE  OK  FRvVNKl.IN  S  PROPOSAL  RE  LATIN*;  TO 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  YOUTH. 

In  the  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania. 


THE  PHILADELPHIA  ACADEMY. 

a  pencil-drawing  made  by  Du  Simitiere,  in  the  possession 
of  the  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia. 


may  be  distinguished  two  separate  offices  that  may  blend  and  often  do  so,  but  capable,  severally, 
of  a  severe  insulation,  and  naturally  fitted  for  reciprocal  repulsion.  There  is  first,  the  literature 
of  knowledge;  and,  secondly,  the  literature  of  power.  The  function  of  the  first  is — to  teach;  the 
function  of  the  second — to  mote;  the  first  is  a  rudder;  the  second,  an  oar  or  a  sail.  The  first 
speaks  to  the  mere  discursive  understanding;  the  second  speaks  ultimately,  it  may  happen,  to 
the  higher  understanding  or  reason,  but  always  through  aflfections  of  pleasure  and  sympathy."  (11) 

Arnold  Bennett  in  "Literary  Taste— How  to  Form  It,"  says: 

"I  have  only  one  cautionary  word  to  utter.  You  may  be  saying  to  yourself:  'So  long  as  I 
stick  to  classics,  I  cannot  go  wrong.'  You  can  go  wrong.  You  can,  while  reading  naught  but. 
very  fine  stuff,  commit  the  grave  error  of  reading  too  much  of  one  kind  of  stuff.  Now  there  are 
two  kinds  and  only  two  kinds.  These  two  kinds  are  not  prose  and  poetry,  nor  are  they  divided 
the  one  from  the  other  by  any  differences  of  form  or  subject.  They  are  the  inspiring  kind  and 
the  informing  kind.  No  other  genuine  division  exists  in  literature.  Emerson,  I  think,  first 
clearly  stated  it.  His  €erms  were  literature  of  "power"  and  the  literature  of  "knowledge".  In 
nearly  all  great  literature  the  two  qualities  are  to  be  found  in  company,  but  one  usually  predomi- 
nates over  the  other.  An  example  of  the  exclusively  inspiring  kind  is  Coleridge's  Kubla  Kahn. 
I  cannot  recall  any  first-class  example  of  the  purely  informing  kind.  The  nearest  approach  to 
it  that  I  can  name  is  Spencer's  First  Principles,  which,  however,  is  at  least  once  highly  inspiring. 
An  example  in  which  the  inspiring  quality  predominates  is  Ivanhoe;  and  an  example  in  which 
the  informing  quality  predominates  is  Hazlitt's  essays  on  Shakespeare's  characters.  You  must 
avoid  undue  preference  to  the  kind  in  which  the  inspiring  quality  predominates  or  to  the  kind 
in  which  the  informing  quality  predominates.  Too  much  of  the  one  is  enervating;  too  much 
of  the  other  is  desiccating.  If  you  stick  exclusively  to  the  one  you  may  become  a  mere  debauchee 
of  the  emotions;  if  you  stick  exclusively  to  the  other  you  may  cease  to  live  in  any  full  sense. 
I  do  not  say  you  should  hold  the  balance  exactly  between  the  two  kinds.  Your  taste  will  come 
into  the  scale.     What  I  say  is  that  neither  kind  must  be  neglected."  (4) 

"The  high  school  has  ceased  to  be  mainly  a  preparatory  school.  This  fact  explains  why 
there  is  a  movement  for  the  reorganization  of  the  English  course  and  indicates  what  the  general 
character  of  the  reorganization  is  likely  to  be.  Agitation  for  reform  in  English  is  not  unique. 
It  is  identical  in  spirit  with  the  effort  to  develop  a  better  type  of  course  in  history,  mathematics, 
science,  and  foreign  languages,  and  has  much  in  common  with  current  demands  for  increased 
empha.sis  upon  art,  music,  physical  education,  manual  training,  agriculture,  and  domestic  science. 
After  more  than  half  a  century  of  struggle,  the  public  high  school  has  definitely  established  itself 
as  a  continuation  of  common  school  education,  as  a  finishing  school  (in  the  good  sense  of  that 
term)  rather  than  a  fitting  school,  and  now  recognizing  its  freedom  and  its  responsibility,  it  has  set 
to  work  in  earnest  to  adjust  itself  to  its  main  task."  (33) 

It  was  then,  in  1876,  that  a  remarkable  movement  began,  which  had  the 
result  of  making  the  study  of  English  pre-eminent  in  the  mor^  important 
colleges  and  putting  it  in  a  distinguished  place  in  the  secondary  schools.  The 
desire  for  this  change  came  partly  from  the  colleges  and  partly  from  the 
secondary  schools  themselves.  In  1873-1874,  Harvard  instituted  an  entrance 
examination  in  English  in  favor  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  accuracy  in  the 
use  of  English  on  the  part  of  the  students  entering  college.  The  preparatory 
schools  were  necessarily  bound  to  keep  pace  with  this.  The  high  school 
authorities,  on  the  other  hand,  were  little  concerned  about  what  was  taught 
in  colleges,  simply  desiring  to  give  to  their  pupils  the  wisest,  most  thorough 
course  possible  in  English  Literature  and  English  Composition.  The  agita- 
tion has  been  carried  on  by  conventions,  conferences,  reports  of  committees 


(11)  De  Quincey,  pp.  3-4. 
(4)  Bennett,  pp.  68-69. 

(33)  Report  of  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Reorganization  of  High-School  English. 
(Being  printed  now  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.) 

13 


and  in  our  educational  press  until  great  interest  has  been  aroused  throughout 
the  country  on  the  subject  of  a  graded  course  in  English  instruction;  and 
definite  principles  have  been  formulated  on  which  instruction  in  English  may 
be  based. 

The  admission  requirements  in  English,  1873-1874,  at  Harvard  College 
were  important  because  they  established  a  type  of  preparation  and  examina- 
tion which  has  existed  even  up  to  the  present  time.  This  example  of  Harvard 
was  followed  by  other  colleges  and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  commission  of 
New  England  Colleges  on  admission  examinations,  which  undertook  the  task 
of  formulating  from  year  to  year  the  requirements  in  English.  Several  attempts 
were  made  to  secure  uniformity  in  English.  The  National  Education  Associa- 
tion (N.  E.  A.)  showed  a  marked  interest  in  the  teaching  of  English  and  the 
publication  of  the  report  of  the  National  Committee  of  Ten  on  English  in 
Secondary  Schools  gave  a  new  basis  to  instruction  in  English.  This  admirable 
report  was  the  first  attempt  in  England  or  America,  to  systematize  secondary 
instruction  in  English. 

The  Committee  of  Fifteen  on  Elementary  Education  (1895)  which  recom- 
mended a  systematic  course  in  English  for  the  elementary  schools  and  the 
Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements  (1899)  which  formulated  a 
course  of  study  leading  to  the  College  Requirements  and  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten  which  formulated,  primarily,  a  course  of  study  for  the 
secondary  schools,  have  had  two  marked  results  which  are  as  follows:  (45) 

1.  Great  interest  has  been  aroused  throughout  the  country  regarding  a 
graded  course  of  instruction  in  English. 

2.  Definite  principles  have  been  formulated  on   which  instruction   in 
English  may  be  based. 

The  custom  of  giving  certain  master  pieces  of  English  literature  as  the 
basis  of  written  tests  became  firmly  established,  Yale  College,  in  1892  having 
begun  it,  but  the  test  in  oral  reading  seems  to  have  been  omitted. 

The  National  Education  Association  tried  to  follow  up  the  Committee 
of  Ten  by  appointing  a  Committee  of  College  Entrance  Requirements  in 
English,  the  report  being  published,  July,  1899.  The  point  of  view  was  still 
that  of  preparation  for  college,  however,  so  the  English  course  could  not  be 
considered  on  its  merits  as  contributing  to  the  needs  of  the  pupil,  irrespective 
of  whether  he  is  to  enter  vocational  work  or  not.  The  ideal  course  in  the 
high  school  is  such  as  aims  to  prepare  for  either  the  Academic  course  or  the 
Vocational  one. 

For  the  last  five  years  a  "Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  the  Re- 
organization of  English  in  the  Secondary  Schools,"  representing  the  National 
Education  Association  and  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English  has 
been  in  preparation  and  is  now  being  printed  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  which  will  soon  be  available  foi*  use  among  the  teachers  of 
English.  This  suggestive  outline  of  the  High  School  Course  in  English  deals 
mainly,  if  not  altogether,  with  the  general  course  in  Literature  omitting  that 
which  I  deem  very  important  in  this  present  Industrial  Age,  namely,  the 


(45)  Committtee  of  Ten,  p.  86. 

14 


suggestive  outline  for  Vocational  Literature.  Tliis  is  very  much  needed,  at 
the  present  time,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  keep  in  touch  with  the  vocational 
life  now.  It  is  certainly  commendable  in  that  it  recommends  very  highly 
oral  and  written  composition  and  largely  applied  technical  grammar.  As  the 
aim  of  the  course  is  that  of  a  "finishing"  school  rather  than  that  of  a  "fitting" 
school  it  should  provide,  somewhat,  for  Vocational  Literature. 

Education  is  development  or  applied  psychology.  One  phase  of  the 
entire  educational  process  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  purposes  which  may  be 
kept  in  view  in  selecting  and  appraising  methods  and  means  is  that: 

"All  ordinary  education  readily  lends  itself  to  a  fourfold  division  in  this  connection. 
(a)  There  is  a  kind  of  education  whose  chief  aim  is  to  produce  and  preserve  bodily  efficiency, 
such  as  health,  strength,  and  working  power.  This  we  call  broadly  physical  education,  (b)  Next 
is  the  kind  of  education  whose  chief  aim  is  to  earn  a  living  or  expressed  in  more  social  terms  the 
capacity  to  do  one's  share  of  the  productive  work  of  the  world,  (c)  A  third  form  of  education 
is  designed,  primarily,  to  fit  the  individual  to  live  among  his  fellows.  Religious  education,  mental 
instruction,  and  training  in  civics  contribute  to  this  end.  (d)  There  is,  furthermore,  the  kind  of 
education  that  aims  to  develop  intellectual  and  aesthetic  capacities,  apart  from  any  practical  use 
to  which  these  may  be  put.  This  education  is  frequently  designated  by  the  term  "cultural", 
but  in  a  somewhat  special  sense  of  the  word.  The  two  last  divisions,  which  contribute  respectively 
to  the  improvement  of  social  life  and  to  the  development  of  personal  culture,  will  in  this  discussion 
be  grouped  together  under  the  general  designation,  "liberal  education".  That  education  whose 
chief  aim  is  to  fit  for  productive  capacity  will  be  designated  as  "vocational."  (38) 

The  entire  educational  process  in  a  broad  sense,  may  be  considered,  then 
on  the  basis  of  a  two-fold  classification:   liberal  and  vocational. 

"WHAT  IS  LIBERAL  EDUCATION? 

Historically  speaking,  a  liberal  education  is  that  which  aims  to  broaden  the  intellectual 
and  the  emotional  horizon  of  the  individual,  and  especially  in  those  fields  that  are  not  involved 
in  the  earning  of  a  livelihood.  *  *  * 

Liberal  education  may  be  interpreted  as  that  which  concerns  itself  with  the  consuming,  as 
opposed  to  the  productive  processes  of  life.  Each  individual  uses  in  greater  or  less  degree,  accord- 
ing to  his  cultivation  and  social  capacity  the  world's  stock  of  literature,  history,  music,  art,  science, 
and  human  associations,  as  well  as  embodiments  of  these  in  more  material  forms.  It  is  the  func- 
tion of  liberal  education  to  teach  persons  how  to  use  or  how  to  consume  to  the  best  individual 
or  social  advantage  the  work  of  others.  Liberal  education  is  not,  primarily,  concerned  with  the 
making  of  the  efficient  producer,  altho  it  makes  important  indirect  contribution  to  that  end; 
but  it  is  vocational  education  which  aims  to  train  the  producer  as  such,  and  it  looks  primarily 
towards  specialization  *  *  *, 

In  these  later  days  we  have  learned  more  about  the  psychological  side  of  liberal  education. 
We  have  discovered  that  so  far  as  large  numbers  of  individuals  are  concerned  the  truest  form  of 
liberal  education  does  not  consist  in  dealing  with  those  things  that  are  most  remote  from  the 
practical  affairs  of  daily  Ufe. 

H|  WHAT  IS  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION? 

*^  In  vocational  education,  the  choice  of  materials  and  methods  is  primarily  determined  by 
the  necessities  of  some  of  the  numerous  callings  or  groups  of  related  callings,  into  which  the  workers 
of  the  world  have  divided  themselves. 

That  vocational  education  which  is  specialized  to  the  preparation  of  lawyers,  physicians, 
and  teachers,  we  call  professional;  that  which  is  designated  to  train  the  bookkeeper,  clerk,  stenog- 
rapher, or  commercial  traveler,  including  leadership,  we  call  commercial;  that  which  is  organ- 
ized with  reference  to  the  bricklayer,  the  machinist,  the  shoemaker,  the  metal  worker,  the  factory- 
hand  and  the  higher  manufacturing  pursuits,  we  call  industrial  education;  that  which  conveys 


(38)  Snedden,  pp.  3-4. 

15 


skill  and  knowledge  looking  to  the  tillage  of  the  soil  and  the  management  of  domestic  animals 
we  call  agricultural;  and  that  which  teaches  the  girl  dressmaking,  cooking  and  management  of 
the  home,  we  call  education  in  the  household  arts."  (38) 

The  types  of  vocational  education  then  are: 

1.  Professional.  3.    Agricultural. 

2.  Commercial.  4.    Household  Arts,i  etc. 
Liberal   education    develops,    primarily,    the   intellectual    and    aesthetic 

capacities  and  fits  the  individual  to  Hve  among  his  fellow  men  but  it  does  not 
promote,  primarily,  the  capacity  to  earn  a  living  nor  does  it  increase,  primarily, 
the  pupil's  vocational  information. 

Vocational  education  promotes,  primarily,  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  to 
earn  a  living  and  increases,  primarily,  the  pupil's  information  or  knowledge 
but  does  not,  primarily,  develop  the  cultural  forces  of  the  pupil's  mind. 

There  is  also  an  agitation  for  the  reorganization  of  the  Public  School 
System  and  the  reorganization  of  the  Secondary  School  System  as  well  as  for 
the  reorganization  of  English  in  order  to  provide  better  accommodations  for 
both  the  vocationally  trained  pupil  and  the  liberally  trained  one. 

The  Committee  of  Ten  declares: 

"The  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States,  taken  as  a  whole,  do  not  exist  for  the  purpose 
of  preparing  boys  and  girls  for  college.  Only  an  insignificant  percentage  of  the  graduates  of 
these  schools  go  to  colleges  or  scientific  schools.  Their  main  function  is  to  prepare  for  the  duties 
of  life  that  small  proportion  of  all  the  children  in  the  country — a  proportion  small  in  number, 
but  very  important  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation — who  show  themselves  able  to  profit  by  an  edu- 
cation prolonged  to  the  eighteenth  year  and  whose  parents  are  able  to  support  them  while  they 
remain  so  long  at  school," 

And,  again,  the  Committee  says: 

"A  secondary-school  program  intended  for  national  use  must  therefore  be  made  for  those 
children  whose  education  is  not  to  be  pursued  beyond  the  secondary  school.  The  preparation 
of  a  few  pupils  for  college  or  scientific  school  should  in  the  ordinary  secondary  school,  be  the  in- 
cidental and  not  the  principal  object."  *  *  * 

The  Committee  of  Fifteen  reported  as  follows: 

"Your  committee  is  agreed  that  the  time  devoted  to  the  elementary  school  work  should 
not  be  reduced  from  eight  years,  but  have  recommended,  as  hereinbefore  stated,  that  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  years  a  modified  form  of  algebra  be  introduced  in  place  of  advanced  arithmetic 
and  that  in  the  eighth  year  English  grammar  yield  place  to  Latin."  *  *  * 

The  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements  makes  the  following 
recommendations : 

"In  our  opinion  it  is  important  that  the  last  two  grades  that  now  precede  the  high-school 
course  should  be  incorporated  in  it,  and,  wherever  practicable,  the  instruction  in  those  two  grades 
should  be  given  under  the  supervision  of  the  high-school  teacher."  *  *  * 

President  Butler,  in  seeking  to  define  the  scop^  of  secondary  education 
and  its  purpose,  gave  an  illuminating  characterization  of  both  the  elementary 
and  secondary  periods  of  school  life.     This  characterization,  in  part,  follows: 


(38)  Snedden,  pp.  4-9. 

iSometimes  called  thfe  "Practical  Arts".  The  "Practical  Arts",  a  term  used  in  Prevocational 
Schools — Grades  VII-VIII-IX  which  includes  Manual  Training,  Cooking,  Sewing,  etc.  It  is 
also  called  Domestic  Science.  In  some  cases  "Practical  Arts"  includes  Industrial  Arts,  Agricul- 
ture and  Domestic  Science. 

16 


"Elementary  education  I  define  as  that  general  training  in  the  elements  of  knowledge  that 
is  suitable  for  a  pupil  from  the  age  of  6  or  7  to  the  period  of  adolescence.  It  is  ordinarily  organ- 
ized in  either  eight  or  nine  grades,  each  occupying  an  academical  year.  Nine  grades  are  too 
many  and  are  distinctly  wasteful.  To  spend  so  much  time  on  these  simple  studies  leads  to  that 
arrested  development  which  is  so  often  the  bane  of  the  elementary  school  period.  I  have  never 
known  a  child  who  needed  more  than  six  years'  time  in  which  to  complete  the  elementary  course, 
and  I  have  known  but  few  who  have,  as  an  actual  fact,  ever  taken  longer  than  that.  *  *  *  The 
secondary  school  period  is  essentially  the  period  of  adolescence,  of  what  may  be  called  the  active 
adolescence  as  distinguished  from  the  later  and  less  violent  manifestations  of  physical  and  mental 
change  that  are  now  usually  included  under  the  term.  The  normal  years  are,  with  us  from  12  to 
16,  or  from  13  to  17.  The  normal  boy  or  girl  who  is  going  to  college  ought  to  enter  at  17  at  the 
latest.  *  *  *  It  is  in  the  elimination  of  elementary  studies  from  the  secondary  school  and  the  frank 
recognition  of  the  paramount  advantage  of  the  elective  system  that  I  see  the  way  of  highest 
usefulness  opening  before  the  secondary  school." 

This  address  by  President  Butler  and  the  report  of  the  Committee  on 
College  Entrance  Requirements,  with  the  debate  which  the  positive  recom- 
mendations of  the  latter  aroused,  closed  the  first  decade  of  the  discussion 
looking  toward  a  functional  articulation  of  the  parts  of  the  school  system. 

During  the  second  decade  a  paper  by  Dr.  E.  W.  Lyttle,  state  inspector 
of  high  schools  for  New  York,  on  the  subject,  "Should  the  Twelve- Year  Course 
of  Study  Be  Equally  Divided  Between  the  Elementary  School  and  the  Sec- 
ondary?" was  given. 

"This  led,  in  1905,  to  the  appointing  of  a  standing  committee  to  consider  the  question  of 
dividing  the  12  years  equally  between  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  Dr.  Lyttle  advocated, 
in  the  paper  just  referral  to,  such  a  division,  on  the  grounds  that  the  eight-year  grade  course  is 
the  result  of  a  desire  to  attain  "perfection  in  the  fundamentals";  that  there  is  a  pedagogical 
point  where  secondary  education  should  begin,  which  occurs  when  the  child  has  acquired  the 
tools  of  an  education,  and  at  a  point  coinciding  with  the  dawn  of  adolescence;  that  this  period 
is  characterized  in  both  the  content  and  method  of  instruction;  and  that  a  six-year  high-school 
course  would  lend  itself  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades  to  a  differentiation  along  lines  of 
business,  mechanical  arts,  and  professional  preparation."  (46) 

In  the  reorganization  plan  under  which  the  school  department  of  Berkeley, 
California,  is  now  working,  which  was  inaugurated  in  January,  1910,  the 
twelve  grades,  or  years,  are  divided  into  three  groups,  the  elementary,  com- 
prising the  first  six  years  of  school  life;  the  lower  high  school  (called  Prevoca- 
tional  and  Junior  High  School  or  Intermediate,  or  Central  School  in  some 
places)  comprising  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years;  and  the  higher  or 
high  school,  embracing  all  pupils  of  the  tenth,  eleventh  and  twelfth  years. 
In  this  thesis  the  plan  is  for  a  Prevocational  and  Junior  High  School  of  three 
years  and  a  Senior  High  of  three  years  duration,  i.  e.,  on  the  basis  of  a  "six- 
three-three"  plan. 

As  to  the  agitation  concerning  Vocational  Education  with  reference  to 
Readings  in  English  Language  and  Literature,  or  along  the  lines  of  Vocational 
Guidance  the  following  statement  is  made  by  J.  B.  Davis,  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Michigan: 

"The  first  work  done  in  vocational  guidance  that  was  done  in  the  United  States  was  not 
connected  with  the  public  school  system.  Men  who  had  to  deal  with  the  drifting  thousands  of 
people  that  are  always  looking  for  a  job  or  some  better  position  than  the  one  at  the  present  time 
occupied,  were  the  first  to  realize  the  need  of  helping  these  unfortunate  wanderers  into  the  kind 


(46)  U.  S.  Bulletin  of  Education,  pp.  49-65. 

17 


of  labor  for  which  they  were  by  nature  and  experience  best  fitted.  To  Mr.  Frank  Parsons  of  the 
vocation  bureau  of  Civic  Service  Home  in  Boston  is  due  the  credit  for  introducing  the  methods 
of  vocational  guidance  that  have  proved  so  valuable  to  the  workers  in  all  branches  of  the  move- 
ment." (10) 

A  wave  of  investigation  and  a  desire  to  know  just  what  should  be  done 
in  Vocational  Education  with  reference  to  Readings  and  Studies  in  English 
Language  and  Literature  resulted,  in  one  instance,  in  the  publishing  of  a  book 
"Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance",  by  J.  B.  Davis,  of  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan. 
This  book  helped  to  lay  the  foundation  for  some  so-called  Vocational  Readings 
in  a  number  of  the  schools. 

In  the  Suggestive  Outlines — For  Study  Courses  in  Minnesota  High 
Schools  (prepared  by  a  special  Committee  of  High  School  Superintendents 
the  following  is  given: 

"That  school  is  a  part  of  life  is  a  fact  that  pupils  often  fail  to  realize.  To  awaken  possibilities 
and  responsibilities  of  life,  the  Central  High  School  of  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  originated  the 
plan  for  vocational  and  moral  guidance.  The  operation  of  the  plan  in  that  high  school  has  not 
only  given  a  moral  instruction  but  it  has  also  furnished  vital  topics  for  theme  writing.  The 
themes  on  vocational  topics  do  not  take  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  time  given  to  composition." 

This  excerpt  is  followed  by  a  somewhat  similar  outline  for  "Vocational 
Guidance  through  English  Composition,"  as  given  in  "Vocational  and  Moral 
Guidance",  by  J.  B.  Davis — with  similar  Readings,  and  also  as  given  in  a 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  which  will  be  indicated  later. 

Not  only  is  the  Minnesota  Vocational  Reading  Matter  based  largely  on 
this  material  but  the  so-called  Vocational  Readings  of  the  Lincoln,  Nebraska, 
Schools  are  also  largely  based  upon  it.  The  following  outline,  though  some- 
what changed  is  largely  used  by  the  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  Schools  and  is  indicated 
in  "Vocational  Guidance",  Bulletin,  1914.     No.  14. 

"VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  THROUGH  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Work  in  the  Grand  Rapids  (Mich.)  High  Schools  under  Jesse  B.  Davis,  vocational  director. 
Members  of  the  vocational  conference  were  admitted  to  the  classrooms  to  observe  the  pupils 
in  the  discussion  of  vocational  topics  according  to  the  following  outline: 
Seventh-grade  theme:   Vocational  ambition. 

Purpose,  to  arouse  within  the  pupil  a  desire  to  be  somebody  and  something  worth  while 

in  the  world. 
Eighth-grade  theme:   The  value  of  an  education. 

Purpose,  to  impress  upon  the  pupil  the  need  and  means  of  obtaining  some  further 

preparation  for  life  than  that  of  the  grammar  grades  of  the  public  schools. 
Ninth-grade  theme,  first  semester:   The  elements  of  character  that  make  for  success  in  life. 

Purpose,  to  draw  out  an  understanding  of  real  success  in  life  and  how  it  is  obtained, 

and  to  apply  the  fundamental  lessons  of  character  building  to  the  needs  of  each  pupil. 
Ninth-grade  theme,  second  semester:   Vocational  biographi,-. 

Purpose,  to  continue  the  same  lessons  from  the  lives  of  successful  men  and  women  in 

varied  fields  of  endeavor. 
Tenth-grade  theme,  first  semester:   The  world's  work. 

Purpose,  to  study  vocation  in  general  in  order  that  the  pupil's  vision  of  the  call  to 

service  may  be  as  broad  as  possible. 
Tenth-grade  theme,  second  semester:  Choosing  a  vocation. 

Purpose,  to  attempt  to  select  that  vocation  or  general  field  of  occupation  for  which 

the  pupil  by  self-analysis  seems  best  fitted. 


(10)  Davis,  p.  137. 

18 


Eleventh-grade  theme,  first  semester:  Preparation  for  life's  work. 

Purpose,  to  plan  out  a  definite  course  of  study  and  conduct  to  meet  the  special  require* 

ments  of  the  profession,  business,  or  industry  chosen. 
Eleventh-grade  theme,  second  semester:    Vocational  ethics. 

Purpose,  to  study  the  moral  problems  peculiar  to  the  chosen  business,  profession,  or 

occupation. 
Twelfth-grade  theme,  first  semester:  Social  ethics. 

Purpose,  to  study  the  relation  of  the  individual  in  his  future  vocation  to  society. 
Twelfth-grade  theme,  second  semester:  Civic  ethics. 

Purpose,  to  study  the  relation  of  the  individual  in  his  future  vocation  to  the  state."  (48) 

As  to  the  General  Literature  of  the  recently  mentioned  schools  it  is  very 
good  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  classifying  some  of  our  very  best  General 
Literature  under  Vocational  Readings.  To  me,  "The  Perfect  Tribute" 
(Lincoln)  as  classed  by  J.  B.  Davis  under  Vocational  Biography,  is  Literature 
of  power,  and  not  Literature  of  knowledge.  "Helen  Keller — "Story  of  My 
Life"  and  also  "The  Perfect  Tribute"  (Lincoln)  are  classed  by  the  Lincoln, 
Nebraska,  Schools  under  Vocational  Biography.  This  to  me,  seems  a  wrong 
classification,  as  I  think  both  of  these  belong,  properly,  under  Literature  of 
power  and  should  be  classed  as  General  Literature,  belonging  primarily  to 
Liberal  Education  rather  than  to  Vocational  Education.  I  further  think  that 
all  or  at  least  most  of  these  Vocational  Readings  as  given  may  be  classed 
more  properly  under  what  De  Quincey  calls  the  "Middle  Zone".  Yet,  at  the 
same  time,  we  will  get  better  results  if  we  have  a  clear-cut  distinctive  list  for 
General  Literature  and  also  one  for  Vocational  Literature.  Then  the  other 
Readings  may  be  put  under  "C"  as  in  the  present  outlined  Course  of  Study 
and  may  belong  to  the  "  Middle  Zone"  for  the  time-being,  until  better  classified 
or  until  tested  and  tried  out. 

"The  reason  why  the  broad  distinction  between  the  two  literatures  of  power  and  knowledge  so 
little  fix  the  attention,  lies  in  the  fact,  that  a  vast  proportion  of  books — history,  biography,  travels, 
miscellaneous  essays,  etc.,  lying  in  a  middle  zone,  confound  these  distinctions  by  inter-blending 
them.  All  that  we  call  'amusement'  or  'entertainment',  is  a  diluted  form  of  power  belonging 
•to  passion,  and  also  a  mixed  form;  and  where  threads  of  direct  instructions  intermingle  in  the 
texture  with  these  threads  of  power,  this  absorption  of  duality  into  one  representative  nuance 
neutralizes  the  separate  perception  of  either.  Fused  into  a  tertium  quid,  or  neutral  state,  they 
disappear  to  the  popular  eye  as  the  repelling  forces,  which  in  fact,  they  are."  (11) 

The  one  thing  now  needful,  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  English  teachers  as 
to  subject  matter  to  be  used  in  Vocational  Literature,  and  the  carelessness  and 
indifference  as  to  whether  Vocational  Literature  or  Vocational  Reading  matter 
should  be  taught  in  English  is  to  enlighten  teachers  as  to  the  best  Vocational 
Literature,  or  Reading  matter.  The  present  purpose  of  this  thesis  is  to  benefit 
the  pupil,  as  well  as  the  teacher,  by  correlating  Vocational  and  Liberal  Educa- 
tion through  English  Language  and  Literature  by  using  both  the  Literature 
of  power  and  the  Literature  of  knowledge  so  the  pupil  may  be  protected  and 
aided  while  he  is  preparing  to  be  an  efficient  member  of  society. 

The  problem  in  correlating  Vocational  and  Liberal  Education  through 
English  Language  and  Literature  is  to  give  culture  as  well  as  knowledge  or 
information  to  the  vocationally  trained  pupil  and  knowledge  or  information 
as  well  as  culture  to  the  culturally  trained  one.    How  may  this  be  done? 

(48)  United  States  Bureau,  p.  91. 
(H)  De  Quincey,  p.  11. 

19 


Part  II. 
EXISTING  CONDITIONS 


EXISTING  CONDITIONS. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  existing  conditions  of  English  Language  and 
Literature  in  the  schools  of  the  United  States,  reports  from  School  Surveys; 
reports  from  United  States  Bureau  of  Education;  reports  from  National 
Education  Association;  and  two  forms  of  Questionnaires,  "A"  and  "B", 
were  decided  upon  as  the  minimum  amount  of  investigation  in  the  attempt 
^(^  secure  reliable  data  upon  which  to  base  any  conclusions  or  recommendations. 

From  the  Report  of  the  Minneapolis  Survey  for  Vocational  Education 
(Jan.  1,  1916)  I  have  selected  the  vocational  courses  in  English  which  seem 
to  me  very  meager.  These  courses  with  some  suggestions  and  remarks  are 
indicated  as  follows: 

"SUMMARY  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTIVE  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  SURVEY  AND  CON- 
CLUSIONS AND  RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THE  SURVEY  COMMITTEE. 

1.  Analysis  of  the  knowledge  necessary  for  successful  salesmanship  shows  that  there  is  a 
definite  teachable  content  in  retail  salesmanship. 

2.  Less  than  an  elementary  school  education  is  not  enough  for  store  work,  and  a  high 
school  education  is  desirable.  *  *  * 

OUTLINES  OF  COURSE  OF  STUDY  WORKED  OUT  BY  THE  SURVEY  WITH  THE 
TRADES  AND  APPROVED  BY  THEM. 

Two  courses  of  study  for  girls  and  women  and  four  for  boys  and  men  are  given.  In  the 
case  of  women,  salesmanship  and  garment-making  were  taken  because  they  represent  two  widely 
different  lines  of  employment.  They  also  represent  the  two  largest  lines  of  employment  for  girls 
and  women. 

In  the  case  of  the  men's  trades,  three  courses  of  study  were  chosen  to  represent  day,  dull 
season  and  evening  classes,  giving  instruction  for  the  occupations  of  carpenter,  bricklayer,  and 
telephone  worker,  respectively.  A  fourth  course  offers  suggestions  as  to  the  subject-matter 
which  should  be  taught  to  the  workers  in  the  milling  industry,  while  a  fifth  gives  the  technical 
course  for  boys  which  has  just  been  established  at  the  Central  High  School.  *  *  * 

COURSES  FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN. 

Courses  for  girls  and  women  are  outlined  as  follows:^ 

1.     SALESMANSHIP. 
I.     Introductory  Course. 

For  aisle  girls,  messengers,  stock  keepers,  and  others  who  wish  to  qualify  as  sales  persons. 
(1)  To  test  the  general  ability.     (2)  To  determine  the  attitude  toward  store  work,  and  (3)  to 
serve  as  a  basis  for  eliminating  those  lacking  fundamental  education. 
2.    English  and  spelling. 

A.  Oral  English. 

a.    For  ability  to  express  simple  information  about  merchandise  correctly; 
(b)  for  use  in  greeting  a  customer  and  ordinary  conversation. 

B.  Dictation  exercise  to  test: 

a.  Ability  to  take  customer's  orders  or  directions. 

b.  Common  facts  about  merchandise. 

C.  Spelling  lists  of  words  selected  to  suit  the  needs  and  ability  of  each  group  of 
beginners. 

a.    Words  in  common  use;  b.  Names  of  merchandise;  c.  Names  of  streets.  ♦  *  * 


»Ju8t  courses  in  English  only  are  given. 

23 


II.     Elementary  Salesmanship. 

(1)  To  test  the  talent  for  salesmanship,  (2)  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  eliminating  those  unsuited 
for  store  work,  (3)  to  assist  in  classifying  workers  as  stock-keepers,  sales  persons,  or  office 
workers. 

1.    Salesmanship.  *  *  * 
3.    English. 

A.  Oral. 

a.  Talking  about  merchandise;  b.  repeating  and  giving  directions;  c.  tele- 
phone conversation;  d.  talking  to  employers  when  applying  in  person  for 
a  position. 

B.  Written. 

a.  Business  letters. 

aa.    Letters  of  inquiry;   bb.  answers  to  inquiries. 

b.  Short  description  of  merchandise. 

C.  Dictation. 

a.  Directions  for  amounts,  kinds  of  merchandise;  b.  names  and  addresses 
of  customers;   c.  short  business  letters. 

D.  Reading  such  literature  on  salesmanship   and  merchandise  as  beginners  can 
understand. 

a.  Salesmanship  literature;  b.  descriptions  of  merchandise,  methods  of  manu- 
facture; c.  trade  journals. 

E.  Spelling. 

a.    Words  in  common  use;  b.  names  of  merchandise,  especially  the  kinds  that 
are  being  handled  from  day  to  day,  and  new  merchandise;    c.  drill  in 
names  of  streets;   d.  abbreviations  in  common  use.  *  *  * 
III.     Salesmanship  and  department  duties. 

Pupils  for  these  courses  (when  given  in  the  store)  should  be  taken  from  the  departments 
having  merchandise  with  points  in  common.  This  course  is  a  continuation  of  the  elementary 
course.  Its  aims  are  (1)  to  develop  selling  ability,  (2)  to  give  specific  information  about 
merchandise  and  methods  obtaining  such  information,  (3)  to  give  methods  for  learning  new 
points  about  merchandise,  and  (4)  to  develop  ability  to  meet  and  deal  with  people.  *  *  * 

3.  English. 

A.  Oral  continuation  of  the  work  outlined  in  the  previous  course  as  applied  to  the 
demonstration  sales  and  talks  about  merchandise. 

B.  Written. 

a.  Description  of  merchandise;  b.  plans  for  demonstration  sales;  c.  selling 
talks;    d.  taking  notes  from  buyers'  talks  and  advisers'  talks. 

C.  Reading. 

a.    Keep  up-to-date  with  the  trade  journals;    b.  methods  for  manufacture  of 
merchandise;    c.  current  magazines  and  newspapers  for  general  informa- 
tion; d.  literature,  selected  classics.  *  *  * 
ADVANCED  COURSE  IN  SALESMANSHIP  for  persons  who  have  been  in  the  store  a  year 
or  more.     To  be  conducted  as  class  work  or  club  work,  for  persons  selected  from  allied  depart- 
ments.    The  object  of  this  course  is  to  develop  a  knowledge  of  scientific  salesmanship  and 
study  of  merchandise.  *  *  * 

4.  Required  Readings  from  trade  journals  and  books  on  salesmanship  discussed  and 
debated. 

5.  Current  literature,  magazines,  newspapers  for  general  information.  *  *  * 
7.    Literature  selected  classics. 

2.    Garment-making  Industries. 

(1)  *  *  * 

(2)  Business  English." 

In  the  Course  of  Study  for  boys  and  men  the  Enghsh  seems  to  be  very 
much  neglected  for  in  carpentry,  bricklaying,  cement,  telephony,  and  flour 
mills,  no  mention  was  made  of  English  except  in  one  case.  Then  only  the 
word  English  was  written  under  carpentry. 


24 


"SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR  PRE  VOCATIONAL  CLASSES. 

A,    Academic  work  to  occupy  approximately  half  the  time  of  the  pupil: 

1.  English:  Language  work,  based  on  reading,  much  of  it  to  bear  upon  the  industries; 
composition,  dealing  with  the  occupational  work  in  the  school  and  the  industries  visited  by  the 
pupil;  business  correspondence,  business  forms,  spelling  and  the  ability  to  interpret  printed 
directions  and  to  carry  on  business  correspondence. 

The  two-year  course  of  study  includes  salesmanship,  bookkeeping,  shorthand,  typewriting, 
English,  civics,  hygiene,  office  training  and  practice,  physical  training,  cooking  (once  a  week) 
and  arithmetic  and  penmanship  for  those  who  are  weak  in  those  subjects.  *  *  * 

The  essential  educational  qualifications  are  practically  the  same  for  all  occupations  in  the 
trade,  though  artistic  qualifications  may  vary  considerable.  One  should  have  a  knowledge  of 
the  fundamental  processes  of  arithmetic  and  common  and  decimal  fractions  and  simple  percentage; 
sufficient  knowledge  of  English  to  speak  and  write  clearly;  ability  to  spell  words  in  common  use 
and  the  names  of  materials  used  in  the  trade;  and  a  kttowledge  of  such  simple  business  forms 
as  a  bill,  a  receipt,  a  check,  a  money  order,  and  how  to  indorse  a  check  or  money  order. 

Several  dressmakers  expressed  themselves  as  very  much  in  favor  of  vocational  training  in 
sewing  and  dressmaking  and  of  such  instruction  in  art  as  might  be  correlated  with  dressmaking. 
Several  dressmakers  when  asked  how  much  education  a  girl  should  have  in  order  to  make  the 
dressmaking  trade  her  vocation  said,  in  substance:  'As  much  as  they  can  get.  The  girl  who 
lacks  education  cannot  get  ahead.'  Only  one  was,  *I  don't  care  anything  about  her  education 
so  long  as  she  can  sew.' 

Ability  to  take  directions  readily  and  carry  them  out  accurately,  initiative,  alertness,  prompt- 
ness, and  willingness  are  among  the  personal  qualities  every  worker  must  have  if  she  is  to  rise 
above  the  level  of  the  lower  occupations  in  the  trade.  The  power  to  observe  and  to  visualize,  a 
quality  which  helps  to  develop  artistic  ability,  is  necessary  for  success  in  the  dressmaking  trade. 
All  workers  in  the  trade  should  have  a  knowledge  of  colors  and  color  harmony,  and  good  taste  in 
the  arrangement  of  colors,  trimmings  and  the  lines  of  the  garment.  Creative  abihty,  as  in  the 
planning  of  gowns  to  suit  individual  persons,  is  a  very  high  order  of  art  which  relatively  few 
persons  in  the  trade  acquire.  *  *  * 

Certain  personal  and  artistic  qualifications  are  essential  to  the  success  of  the  millinery  worker. 
Adaptability  which  enables  her  to  keep  a  flexible  point  of  view  with  regard  to  methods  of  work 
and  changing  standards.of  fashion  is  especially  important,  since  the  trade  is  so  largely  dependent 
upon  style.  The  power  to  observe  and  visualize  is  probably  equally  important,  since  much  of  the 
milliner's  creative  power  is  a  result  of  her  ability  to  use  with  originality  any  details  that  con- 
tribute to  artistic  head  dress.  Adaptability  is  largely  a  matter  of  temperament,  a  quality  which 
training  cannot  supply,  while  the  power  to  observe  and  visualize,  though  perhaps  somewhat 
innate,  may  be  developed  by  experience  in  and  training  for  the  trade. 

The  essential  education  qualifications  in  the  millinery  trade  are  common  to  all  occupations 
in  trade.  A  knowledge  of  arithmet'c  through  fractions  and  simple  percentage,  sufficient  English 
to  speak  and  write  clearly,  ability  to  spell  words  in  common  us^  and  names  of  materials  used  in 
the  trade,  and  a  knowledge  of  business  forms  are  the  most  important  requirements.  *  *  ♦ 

PROMOTION  OF  WORKERS. 

Naturally  a  person  entering  any  kind  of  business  or  profession  is  interested  in  knowing 
what  are  the  chances  of  promotion  and  what  he  must  do  or  be  in  order  to  be  promoted.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  employers  are  to  be  expected  to  promote  workers  they  have  a  right  to  demand 
that  persons  asking  for  promotion  shall  deserve  it.  Many  employees  in  stores  are  dissatisfied 
because  they  are  receiving  only  a  small  wage.  When  some  of  these  were  asked  what  they  had 
done  to  deserve  promotion,  they  replied:  'Nothing',  or  'I've  tried  to  do  my  best  every  day.' 
When  asked  if  they  were  aware  of  having  any  deficiencies,  or  if  they  were  doing  their  work  as 
well  as  it  could  be  done,  they  hesitated,  perhaps  did  not  answer  at  all,  or  said,  'I  suppose  we  all 
have  deficiencies.' 

"A  few  of  the  brightest  and  most  progressive  gave  with  quickness  and  intelligence,  some  of 
the  following  answers:  'I  need  to  know  stock  better';  'I  couldn't  be  a  buyer  because  I  couldn't 
train  others';  'I  lack  confidence';  'I  lack  experience  in  serving  customers';  *I  lack  knowledge 
of  values';  *I  can't  talk  well  enough';  'I  do  not  use  English  well';  'I  do  not  always  handle 
customers  in  the  right  way'.  One  young  woman  who  had  had  two  years  in  high  school  and  two 
years  in  normal  school  said  that  she  didn't  have  enough  education." 

25 


"When  heads  of  departments  were  asked  what  were  the  deficiencies  of  those  who  worked 
.under  their  direction,  they  gave  such  replies  as  these:  'They  are  indiflferent  to  the  store,  to 
customers,  and  to  themselves';  'they  fail  to  grasp  the  idea  of  service  in  merchandising';  they 
visit  too  much  with  each  other,  with  friends  who  come  in  and  over  the  telephone';  and  'they 
will  not  take  responsibility'. 

Other  replies  were:  'They  lack  knowledge  of  stock  and  do  not  keep  stock  properly';  'they 
lack  accuracy  in  the  use  of  arithmetic  and  English,  and  their  language  is  crude  and  full  of  slang'; 
'they  can't  judge  people';    'they  lack  self-control  and  self-confidence'."  (29) 

In  the  Survey  of  the  Portland  Schools  the  Survey  Committee  in  order 
to  secure  greater  efficiency  in  English  as  well  as  in  othpr  studies  advocated  a 
change  in  the  school  system  which  is  indicated  below  with  their  verdict  regard- 
ing English: 

"To  summarize  this  discussion  of  the  types  of  additional  schools  needed,  the  following  recom- 
mendations are  made: 

1.  The  school  system  should  be  reorganized,  to  secure  greater  educational  efficiency,  into 
the  following  units: 

a.  Kindergarten,  one  year. 

b.  Elementary  schools,  six  years. 

'  c.     Intermediate  schools,  three  years, 
d.    High  schools,  five  years  (three  or  four  years  now;  five  ultimately). 

The   Present  System   of   Elementary  and   Secondary   Instruction. 

This  can  be  made  a  truly  American  system,  fitted  to  meet  the  social,  professional,  industrial, 
and  commercial  needs  of  American  boys  and  girls. 

THE    PRESENT    SYSTEM    OF    ELEMENTARY    AND    SECONDARY    INSTRUCTION. 

In  the  personal  study  of  the  schools  it  was  thought  preferable  to  devote  all  of  the  limited 
time  to  a  few  schools,  that  might  be  considered  typical,  rather  than  to  divide  the  time  among  all 
the  schools.  Carrying  out  this  plan,  the  following  schools  were  studied:  The  three  high  schools, 
one  day  being  devoted  to  each;  the  School  of  Trades,  one  forenoon;  the  School  for  the  Deaf, 
Brooklyn  School,  one  forenoon;  the  Highland  School,  one  full  day;  the  Alerta  School,  one  full 
day;  the  Glencoe  School,  one  morning;  the  HoUaday  School,  one  full  day;  the  Couch  School, 
one  forenoon;  the  Failing  School,  one  forenoon;  and  the  Shattuck  School,  one  afternoon.  The 
inspection  of  the  work  of  the  elementary  schools  was  so  planned  that  some  exercises  were  seen  in 
all  subjects;  in  the  principal  subjects — reading,  language,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  history — 
exercises  were  seen  in  every  grade  of  each  subject,  and  usually  in  more  than  one  class,  some- 
times in  several  classes  of  a  grade.  *  *  * 

SOME  SIGNIFICANT  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  CONTENT  OF  THE 
ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

In  respect  to  content — and  lack  of  content — the  elementary  course  of  study  presents  the 
following  significant  characteristics:  *  *  * 

2.  The  overwhelmingly  abstract  and  bookish  character  of  the  course  as  a  whole,  oflfering 
far  too  little  that  is  suitable  to  the  education  of  that  large  minority,  if  not  actual  majority,  of 
children  who  must  be  educated  through  contact  with  concrete  things.  , 

3.  The  excessive  amount  of  time  given  to  technical  grammar. 

4.  Inadequate  attention  to  composition,  both  oral  and  written- 

EXCESSIVE  ATTENTION  GIVEN  TO   TECHNICAL   GRAMMAR  LARGELY  WASTED 

EFFORT. 

In  the  published  course  of  study  the  general  term  "language"  is  used  to  designate  work 
both  in  technical  grammar  and  in  composition.  In  practice  three  exercises  per  week  are  devoted 
to  the  former,  and  two  to  the  latter.     So  far  as  could  be  discovered  by  listening  to  several  exercises. 


(29)  Minneapolis  Survey,  pp.  412-696. 

26 


both  in  grammar  and  in  composition,  and  by  talking  with  teachers,  these  subjects  as  taught  are 
just  about  as  independent  as  arithmetic  and  history.  It  does  not  appear  that  grammar,  in  the 
elementary  course  of  study,  is  contributing  'to  a  deeper  appreciation  of  literature  and  to  the 
development  of  power  in  composition',  as  the  'Syllabus  of  the  Course  in  English''  for  the  Port- 
land High  Schools  rightly  maintains  to  be  the  sole  function  of  this  subject. 

The  grammar  prescribed  is  abstract  and  technical  in  the  extreme,  and  the  assignment  for 
every  grade  far  beyond  the  real  comprehension  of  most  pupils  of  that  grade.  Beginning  with 
Third  B,  and  continuing  through  Sixth  A,  pupils  have  been  required  to  study,  in  Modern  English 
Lessons,  about  as  much  grammar  as  could  be  made  of  practical  value  in  the  entire  elementary 
course;  but  with  the  Sixth  B  the  extensive  study  of  technical  grammar  begins  in  real  earnest. 
From  this  point  on,  the  assignments  are  from  Buehler's  Modern  English  Grammar,  a  book  best 
suited  to  high  school  grades,  but  entirely  out  of  place  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades.  After 
three  and  one-half  years'  study  of  this  technical  book  in  the  elementary  schools,  from  page  15 
to  page  358  inclusive,  the  same  book  is  again  prescribed  for  three  years  of  further  study  in  the 
high  schools.  To  make  the  matter  worse,  the  high  school  instruction  begins  at  the  beginning, 
with  the  simple  sentence  and  the  parts  of  speech. 

It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  the  time  now  devoted  to  technical  grammar  in  grades 
six  to  nine  inclusive  is  wasted.  In  these  grades  not  more  than  one-half  as  much  time  as  now 
should  be  given  to  grammar,  and  that  not  technical,  but  practical  and  comprehensible  to  the 
pupil. 

COMPOSITION  NEGLECTED. 

The  time  and  attention  devoted  to  composition  is  as  inadequate  as  that  devoted  to  grammar 
is  excessive.  While  two  exercises  per  week  are  given  to  the  former  and  three  to  the  latter/  com- 
position does  not  appear  actually  to  receive  as  much  as  two-fifths  of  the  effort  expended  on 
•language'.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  final  term  examinations  are  largely  responsible  for  the 
preponderance  of  emphasis  on  grammar,  out  of  proportion  to  the  time  allotment.  However  this 
may  be,  typical  term  examinations  fairly  represent  the  relative  importance  that  seems  to  be 
accorded  these  two  phases  of  'language';  in  these  examinations  the  relative  value  of  composition, 
as  compared  with  that  of  grammar,  certainly  appears  as  something  less  than  the  ratio  of  two  to 
three.  Following  is  a  copy  of  the  final  term  examination,  given  in  January,  1913,  and  covering 
the  work  in  grammar  for  the  seventh  grade: 

GRAMMAR  EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS— SEVENTH  GRADE. 

I.    a.     Define  Complement. 

b.    Give  example  of  each  kind  of  complement  in  a  sentence. 
II.    a.    Select  the  complements  in  the  following,  tell  the  kind,  giving  reason  for  your  answer  in 
the  case: 

1.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

2.  The  great  forest  became  the  home  of  Robin  Hood. 

3.  They  considered  him  a  brave  sea-captain. 
Define  Indirect  Object,  etc. 


t 


COMPOSITION  VERY  POOR. 

The  work  in  composition  is  scarcely  better.  Although  this  subject  is  examined,  it  is  treated, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  as  of  quite  subordinate  importance  in  comparison  with  technical 
grammar.  Although  I  inquired  frequently  and  on  many  occasions  when  I  was  investigating 
other  subjects,  in  no  single  classroom  was  I  able  to  find  a  single  piece  of  a  pupil's  work  in  written 
composition  in  the  possession  of  the  teacher.  No  literary  or  content  value  seemed  to  be  attached 
by  teachers  or  pupils  to  any  of  the  latter's  written  work.  Such  work  as  teachers  were  able  to 
secure  from  pupils  for  my  inspection  jvas  presented  in  pads  of  the  greatest  variety  in  size,  shape, 
and  appearance,  but  uniformly  of  very  poor  paper.  The  appearance  of  these  pads  as  a  whole, 
and  of  the  individual  pieces  of  composition  which  they  contained,  was  unattractive  in  the 
extreme — slovenly  is  not  too  strong  a  term  to  apply  to  most  of  this  matter. 

There  is  no  little  evidence  that  attention  in  written  composition  is  focused  almost  entirely 
on  form,  to  the  neglect  of  content.  The  instruction  observed  and  pupil's  written  work  strongly 
indicate  this.     Indeed,  in  the  published  course  of  study  for  the  grammar  grades  the  only  direction 

»Page  166. 

27 


or  suggestion  regarding  written  composition  strongly  implies  that  correctness  of  form — which  in 
practice  almost  invariably  means  correct  spelling,  correct  use  of  capitals  and  marks  of  punctua- 
tion— constitutes  the  chief  purpose  of  instruction  on  this  subject.  In  the  language  prescription 
for  Sixth  A,  Part  Thirty-one,  occurs  the  following  direction,  to  which  reference  is  made  in  every 
one  of  the  succeeding  twenty-three  parts  of  the  grammar  course: 

'There  should  be  regular  exercise  in  written  composition.  The  work  should  for  the  most 
part  be  impromptu,  the  writing  being  done  in  the  schoolroom  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher. 

"The  work  should  be  criticised  by  having  specimens  placed  on  the  blackboard.  These 
specimens  should  then  be  made  the  subject  of  class  criticism.  All  typical  errors  will  be  reached 
in  this  way,  and  the  comments  of  the  teacher  will  be  better  understood  than  her  pencil  marks 
upon  the  pupil's  papers." 

"Impromptu  work,  followed  by  blackboard  criticism  of  'typical  errors',  does  not  constitute 
a  method  of  precedure  likely  to  result  in  developing  individuality  of  thought  and  expression,  in- 
dependence and  self-confidence  in  giving  expression  to  one's  own  ideas,  and  pride  in  the  finished 
product  of  one's  efforts.  Predominance  of  attention  to  form,  as  has  been  abundantly  demon- 
strated by  schools  that  have  tried  it — and  this  is  almost  everywhere  the  prevailing  method  of 
teaching  composition,  it  must  be  admitted — never  produces  even  tolerably  satisfactory  formal 
results.  This  failure  was  evident  in  practically  all  the  composition  seen  in  the  Portland  schools — 
the  form  was  as  poor  as  the  content.  Composition  might  well  be  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  valuable  studies  of  the  elementary  schools,  serving  almost  as  no  other  subject  can  to  develop 
rich  individuality,  is  evidently  carried  on  as  a  routine  class  exercise;  one  teacher's  practice  of 
'occasionally  looking  at  individual  work  when  pupils  get  careless',  is  probably  not  confined  to 
that  one  teacher.  Composition,  that  may  be  an  inspiration  and  opportunity,  is  all  too  evidently 
drudgery  for  pupils  and  teachers'." 

"LITERARY  AND  PRE-VOCATIONAL  COURSES. 

Courses  appropriate  to  this  intermediate  period  are  of  two  general  types,  which  may  be 
designated  as  literary  and  pre- vocational.  As  these  names  suggest,  those  of  the  former  type 
are  more  abstract,  bookish,  and  theoretical,  while  those  of  the  latter  are  more  concrete  and  im- 
mediately practical.  The  literary  courses  are  more  closely  allied,  in  content  and  method,  to  the 
present  grammar  and  the  first  year  of  the  literary  high  school  courses. 
The  subjects  composing  the  literary  courses  should  be  as  follows: 
1.     English:    Literature,  written  and  oral  composition,  and  elements  of  grammar.  *  *  * 

PURPOSE  OF  THE  PRE-VOCATIONAL  COURSES. 

The  pre-vocational  courses  appropriate  to  this  intermediate  period  should  serve  two  ends, 
not  dissimilar  in  their  demands:  (1)  they  should  prepare  for  the  vocational  courses  of  the  sec- 
ondary period  those  pupils  who  continue  in  school  beyond  the  intermediate  period;  and  (2)  they 
should  give  those  pupils  who  conclude  their  schooling  with  this  period  some  definite  and  practical 
preparation  for  entrance  into  some  particular  field  of  usefulness.  These  prevocational  courses 
should  be  distinguished  from  each  other  as  well  as  from  the  literary  courses  by  the  immediate 
practical  study  which  should  be  prominent  in  each  of  them.  *  *  *  Each  one  of  these  prevocational 
courses  will  involve  the  study  of  the  following  subjects,  made  concrete  and  practical  and  correlated 
with  the  practical  subject  that  distinguishes  the  course: 

1.     English:    Composition  and  literature.  *  *  * 

PUPIL'S  CAPACITIES  AND  INTERESTS  TESTED  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  STAGE. 

In  addition  to  serving  definitely  the  varied  needs  of  individual  boys  and  girls,  as  these  have 
become  evident  previous  to  entrance  upon  this  intermediate  period,  the  variety  and  range  of 
instruction  offered  in  the  literary  and  pre-vocational  courses  of  this  period  should  serve  to  test 
the  interests  and  to  bring  out  the  special  capacities  of  most  of  those  pupils  whose  educational 
needs  have  not  previously  declared  themselves,  so  that  when  the  work  of  the  secondary  period  is 
reached,  it  will  be  possible  to  determine  intelligently,  in  the  case  of  most  pupils,  what  their  sec- 
ondary course  of  study  should  be.  While  considerable  beginnings  in  differentiation  have  been 
made  in  this  intermediate  period,  so  much  of  the  instruction  has  been  essentially  common  to  all 
courses — the  English,  arithmetic,  history,  and  geography — that  any  pupil  whose  capacity  and 
interests  make  it  advisable  can  change  his  course  at  any  time  during  this  intermediate  period, 
or  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  secondary  period,  and  adjust  himself  without  great  difficulty  to 
any  course  that  promises  greater  benefit  to  him. 

28 


4.     THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL. 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  DETERMINED  BY  LENGTH  OF  TIME   PUPIL  WILL 
CONTINUE  IN  SCHOOL. 

The  instruction  of  the  secondary  period  must  carry  much  further  the  differentiation  begun 
in  the  intermediate  period,  in  order  to  meet  the  further  differentiated  needs  of  the  youth  in 
this  secondary  period.  The  length  of  time  that  a  pupil  will  probably  continue  in  school  now 
becomes  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  in  determining  what  that  pupil's  instruction 
should  be.  Indeed,  because  the  probable  length  of  a  pupil's  schooling  is  usually,  to  a  large 
extent,  the  resultant  of  that  pupil's  capacity  and  interests,  as  well  as  his  economic  circumstances, 
this  factor  of  time  may  safely  be  given  first  consideration  in  determining,  in  a  general  way,  the 
character  of  the  course  of  instruction  that  will  prove  most  beneficial. 

PREPARATORY  AND  VOCATIONAL  COURSES  OF  WIDE   RANGE. 

Hence  it  is  that  the  wide  range  of  secondary  courses  of  instruction,  adequate  to  the  diverse 
needs  of  thousands  of  youth  in  this  secondary  period,  naturally  falls  into  two  groups,  which  may 
be  designated  respectively  as  preparatory  and  vocational.  The  former  group  of  courses,  as  their 
suggested  designation  implies,  should  prepare  for  admission  to  the  work  of  higher  institutions — 
colleges,  universities,  normal  schools,  and  other  schools  for  advanced  special  training — those 
students  who  are  to  continue  their  education  beyond  this  secondary  period.  The  latter  group  of 
courses,  the  vocational,  should  prepare  for  immediate,  definite  service — through  a  wide  range  of 
specifically  practical  instruction,  adapted  on  the  one  hand  to  the  wide  range  of  individual  capacity 
and  interest,  and  on  the  other  to  the  diversified  needs  of  the  community — those  whose  schooling 
is  to  terminate  with  this  secondary  period. 

All  complete  courses  of  this  period  should  be  so  planned  as  to  call  normally  for  three  years 
work.  Yet  they  should  be  flexible  enough  in  arrangement  and  administration  to  meet  individual 
capacity  and  conditions,  especially  permitting  and  encouraging  part-time  work,  where  circum- 
stances make  this  necessary,  and  in  such  cases  extending  over  a  longer  period  than  three  years. 
The  vocational  courses  should  be  so  arranged  that  pupils  who  leave  them  at  any  point,  of  necessity 
or  otherwise,  will  find  themselves  prepared,  in  proportion  to  the  time  and  effort  that  they  have 
so  far  devoted  to  their  training,  to  render  service  in  their  chosen  field."  (30) 

"REPORT  OF  THE  SURVEY  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  SALT  LAKE 

CITY.  UTAH. 
Authorized  by  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Education,  May  4,  1915. 

SURVEY  STAFF. 

Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Professor  of  Education,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University.     Director  of 

the  Survey:  Administration;  Finances. 
James  H.  Van  Sickle,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Springfield,  Massachusetts.     Course  of 

Study;  Instruction. 
Lewis  M.  Terman,  Associate  Professor  of  Education,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  School 

Buildings;   Health  Supervision;   Physical  Education. 
Jesse  B.  Sears,  Assistant  Professor  of  Education,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University.     Efllciency 

Tests. 
J.  Harold  Williams,  Research  Fellow,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University.     Progress  of  Pupils; 

Statistical  Work;   Drawings. 

Types  of  examination  tests  used.  To  show  the  type  of  examination  given  by  the  super- 
visors, and  the  mental  qualities  they  are  designed  to  test,  we  reproduce  a  few  typical  examination 
papers  from  the  collection  supplied  us  while  at  work  in  Salt  Lake  City. 

FINAL  EXAMINATION— EIGHTH  B  CLASS. 
Group  I 

1.    Illustrate  a.  a  phrase  as  subject  of  the  sentence,  b.  a  clause  as  object  of  a  preposition, 
c.  a  co-ordinate  clause,  d.  a  phrase  modifying  a  noun  used  as  subjective  complement. 


(30)  Portland  Survey,  pp.  124-219. 

29 


2.  Choose  the  proper  word  and  fill  in  the  blanks  of  the  following  sentences,  also  give  reasons 
for  your  choice: 

a.  Not  one  of  the  boys  (was,  were)  there. 

b.  The  book  (lay,  laid)  on  the  table  yesterday. 

c.  Deal  (gentle,  gently)  with  them. 

d.  For  you  and  (me,  I)  there  are  many  opportunities. 

e.  (Has,  have)  either  of  you  an  extra  pencil? 

3.  Diagram  the  following  sentences: 

At  the  back  of  Mount  Tipanogas,  not  fifty  miles  away,  is  a  glacier  exhibiting  all 
the  characteristics  of  ice  streams. 

4.  Use  each  of  the  following  words  first  as  a  noun,  then  as  an  adjective,  then  as  a  verb: 
blind,  sound,  spring. 

5.  Classify:    a.  words,  b.  sentences,  c.  phrases,  according  to  use. 
Group  II. 

6.  Write  the  plural  form  of  the  following  words:    Tooth,  Mary,   Miss,  Clark,  German, 
"baby,  journey,  chief,  wolf,  father-in-law. 

7.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs:    Go,  sit,  lie,  dig,  set,  do,  eat,  come,  lay. 

8.  Account  for  the  case  form  of  the  underlined  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences: 

a.  WE  girls  are  going  on  an  excursion. 

b.  Did  you  see  Mary  and  ME  at  the  theater? 

c.  Neither  speaker  had  prepared  HIS  speech. 

d.  I  am  in  a  higher  class  than  SHE. 

e.  The  money  belongs  to  US  four  boys. 

9.  Write  a  sentence  containing  two  subordinate  clauses,  one  performing  the  office  of  an 
adjective,  and  the  other  the  oflBce  of  an  adverb. 

10.    Explain  and  illustrate  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  following  words: 

At  and  in,  between  and  among,  besides  and  beside,  by  and  with,  in  and  into. 

Note  that  children  compose  in  answering  these  questions.  They  are  not  analyzing  the 
sentences  of  others. 

The  quality  of  the  grade  supervision.  *  *  * 

In  another  bulletin  the  following  sound  characterization  of  the  use  of  grammar  is  given 
for  the  benefit  of  principals  and  teachers  of  seventh  and  eighth  grades; 

The  teaching  of  grammar  must  be  justified  by  the  educational  results  that  are  immediate 
rather  than  those  remote.  These  results  should  be,  a.  clearer  thinking,  b.  increased  power  to 
interpret  language. 

It  is  better  to  select  a  few  topics  in  grammar  and  to  teach  tljiem  well  than  endeavor  to  teach 
too  many  topics.  Whenever  the  facts  and  principles  being  studied  have  no  concrete  meaning 
to  the  child  they  are  not  serving  the  educational  purpose  intended.  Verbal  memory  has  little 
place  in  teaching  this  subject.  Classifications  and  definitions  should  follow  concrete  knowledge 
of  many  individual  words  or  expressions  and  not  precede  this  knowledge.  In  other  words,  they 
should  grow  out  of  the  child's  fund  of  information  and  his  powers  of  comparison. 

Good  points  about  the  bulletin  are: 

1.  Flexibility — the  supervisor  realizes  that  conditions  determine  the  remedies  to  be  applied. 

2.  Definiteness  of  directions. 

3.  The  \iltimate  end  is  never  lost  sight  of.  The  various  means  suggested  are  always 
practical.  They  reject  supervisors  who  have  studied  the  results  of  the  teachers'  work  and  who 
possess  readiness  and  resourcefulness  in  suggesting  remedies  for  difficulties. 

4.  The  insisting  upon  thoroughness,  upon  student  power,  not  alone  a  mastery  of  facts,  as 
an  ultimate  test  of  teaching  is  constantly  emphasized. 

5.  The  human  element  in  the  directions  should  tend  to  make  the  teachers  sympathetic 
and  stimulating. 

6.  The  relation  of  subject  to  subject  is  well  brought  out  in  indicating  supervisors  who  see 
all  of  the  subjects  as  parts  of  a  plan  to  develop  a  single  consistent  purpose. 

II.     DESIRABLE  EXTENSIONS. 

The  Junior  High  School.  The  plan  now  well  under  way  in  Salt  Lake  City,  by  which  grades 
seven,  eight,  and  nine  are  organized  departmentally  as  the  Junior  high  school,  is  in  line  with 
progressive  practice  elsewhere.     Already  sixty-eight  cities  have  such  organizations,  and  many 

30 


more  are  contemplating  this  feature.  These  organizations  differ  as  to  the  grades  included, 
whether  two  or  three;  as  to  housing,  whether  in  separate  building,  or  with  lower  grades,  or 
high  school  proper;  and  again  as  to  subjects  included  in  the  course  of  study.  Some  common 
characteristics  appear.  After  the  sixth  grade,  pupils  are  allowed  some  choice  among  studies,  they 
anticipate  some  of  the  work  of  the  high  school  proper,  and  they  are  taught  on  the  departmental 
plan. 

The  plan  as  yet  imperfectly  developed.  In  Salt  Lake  City  the  organization  calls  ultimately 
for  three  grades,  the  seventh,  eighth,  and,  as  pupils  of  the  two  grades  below  accomplish  work  which 
calls  for  high  school  credits,  the  ninth.  A  good  beginning  has  been  made,  and  the  plan  merits 
full  development.  It  seems  to  the  survey,  however,  that  instead  of  scattering  the  units  of  the 
organization  throughout  the  city  it  would  be  better  far,  both  financially  and  educationally,  to 
bring  the  pupils  of  the  Junior  high  school  grades  together  in  larger  numbers.  Since  the  schools 
throughout  the  city  are  now  so  crowded  that  rooms  not  intended  for  school  use  are  being  utilized 
as  class  rooms,  it  is  evident  that  npw  buildings  must  be  erected  to  relieve  the  congestion.  The 
needed  relief  should  be  provided  by  erecting  four  or  five  new  buildings  expressly  for  the  Junior 
high  school  work,  leaving  existing  buildings  for  the  use  of  grades  one  to  six.  This  would  make 
better  grading  possible  and  also  provide  larger  classes,  thus  reducing  the  per  capita  cost  of  in- 
struction. It  would  also  remove  two  grades,  the  seventh  and  eighth,  from  all  existing  buildings, 
in  itself  a  gain  of  no  small  importance. 

The  work  cannot  be  properly  developed  in  so  many  small  scattered  centers.  But  enough 
differentiation  can  be  arranged  to  meet  the  varying  needs  of  the  children.  At  present  pre- 
vocational  needs  of  the  children  of  sklt  Lake  City  are  not  sufficiently  provided  for.  A  choice  of 
German,  Latin,  or  French  is  open  to  pupils,  and  in  one  center  the  arithmetic  of  the  eighth  grade 
has  a  commercial  trend;  but  there  is  little  provision  for  those  non-literary  pupils  who,  though 
not  defective  in  intellect,  are  not  sufficiently  apt  in  dealing  with  symbols  to  get  their  education 
chiefly  from  books.  Not  only  for  these  but  also  for  another  group  of  boys  and  girls,  normal  in 
every  respect  but  who  will  inevitably  leave  school  at  an  early  age,  courses  should  be  offered  which 
uive  definite  industrial  training. 

Nature  and  method  of  the  composition  test.  The  test,  which  is  explained  in  the  following 
paragraphs  from  a  circular  put  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers,  was  given  in  grades  four  to  eight 
inclusive,  in  the  19  schools  selected  for  the  testing  work. 

COMPOSITION  TEST. 

1.  Each  teacher  is  requested  to  ask  her  children  to  write  a  composition  for  her  on  the 
following  theme: 

'Suppose  that  you  have  twenty  dollars,  which  you  have  given  to  spend.  You  have  five 
friends,  and  you  decide  to  spend  it  in  such  a  manner  as  will  give  the  most  pleasure  to  each.  Tell 
what  you  would  do  or  buy  for  each  friend.  The  amount  spent  for  each  friend  need  not  be  the 
same,  but  the  total  for  the  five  must  be  twenty  dollars.' 

2.  The  composition  should  be  written  with  pen  and  ink  on  the  regular  writing  paper. 

3.  After  the  children  are  ready  for  writing,  read  the  subject  to  them,  give  them  a  minute 
or  two  to  ask  questions,  and  as  soon  as  you  are  sure  that  the  children  understand  what  they  are 
to  do,  start  them  at  writing. 

4.  When  the  children  have  finished  collect  the  papers,  fasten  those  for  each  class  together 
with  a  clip,  and  send  to  fhe  ofl!ice  of  the  school  principal. 

No  teacher  marked  her  own  papers,  hence  the  personal  equation  probably  entered  very 
slightly  into  the  scoring,  which  was  done  by  the  use  of  the  Hillegas  scale  for  measuring  the  quality 
of  English  composition.* 

In  all  there  were  3,043  compositions  written,  representing  a  sample  of  slightly  more  than 
16  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  city. 

The  results  of  the  test.  The  results  of  this  test  are  shown  briefly  in  the  following  tables 
and  diagram. 

In  Table  No.  18  a  complete  distribution  of  scores  attained  by  each  grade  is  shown,  together 
with  the  median  score  attained  by  each  grade.  From  this  table  it  may  be  seen  that  the  degree 
of  efficiency  rises  gradually  from  grade  four  to  grade  eight.     That  is,  from  this  test  it  appears 


♦Hillegas,  Milo  B. — A  scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Composition  by 
Young  People.     Published  by  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1912. 

31 


that  the  average  child  in  the  Salt  Lake  City  schools,  during  the  course  of  4  years'  training  in 
English  composition,  may  be  expected  to  gain  in  efficiency  the  equivalent  of  two  and  one-half 
points  on  this  scale,  or  at  the  rate  of  .6  point  per  year.  According  to  the  Butte  Survey*  the 
progress  of  a  child  in  that  city  is  at  the  rate  of  .45. 

Samples  of  average  composition.  In  order  that  the  reader  may  judge  for  himself  of  the 
quality  of  the  work  the  schools  are  doing  in  composition,  the  children's  papers  from  the  different 
schools  have  been  looked  over  and  those  papers  from  each  grade  which  received  the  score  nearest 
median  (approximately  the  average)  for  the  grade  have  been  sorted  out.  From  these  the  following 
compositions  have  been  selected  as  typical  illustrations,  not  of  the  best  or  the  poorest,  but  of 
the  average  composition  from  each  grade  tested.  They  are  presented  here  exactly  as  written, 
spelled,  and  punctuated  in  the  original,  except  that  proper  names  have  been  omitted.  *  *  * 

No.  4.     GRADE  7B,  SCORE  4.74  (WRITTEN  BY  A  BOY  14  YEARS,  3  MONTHS). 

One  sunny  morning  in  May  my  five  cousins  who  were  on  their  way  to  see  the  fair  at  Frisco 
stopped  on  their  way  and  came  to  see  me.  My  father  gave  me  twenty  dollars  to  entertain  them. 
I  was  busy  thinking  of  the  best  way  to  do  it.  I  finally  decided  to  go  to  the  Bingham  Copper 
Mines.     This  was  satisfactory  to  all  and  taking  along  a  lunch  we  started  off. 

When  we  got  there  it  was  noon  and  everybody  was  hungry  so  we  opened  up  the  lunch  and 
ate  until  there  was  not  a  crumb  left.  Next  we  hired  a  guid  to  show  us  through  the  mines  and 
what  a  sight  we  seen.  There  were  walls  of  dirt  seemingly  covered  with  the  yellow  mettle.  Our 
guid  showed  us  where  the  elevators  were  on  which  they  sent  the  copper  to  the  top.  Next  he 
showed  us  the  donkeys  which  hauled  the  dump  cart  to  the  elevators.  After  taking  us  through 
all  the  mines  he  showed  us  where  the  minors  lived. 

Here  our  journey  ended  after  each  buying  a  souvenir  we  departed  for  home,  each  one  satisfied 
with  the  way  of  spending  twenty  dollars. 

No.  5.     GRADE  8B,     SCORE  5.85.     (WRITTEN  BY  A  BOY,  AGE  ?) 
Dear  J 

Two  days  ago  uncle  gave  me  twenty  dollars,  to  get  Christmas  presents  with.  I  was  on  my 
way  down  town,  to  get  them,  when  I  saw  two  ragged  little  boys.  I  stopped  and  said,  to  them, 
'Well,  Johnny,  what  are  you  going  to  get  for  Chistmas.' 

'I  aint  going  to  get  nothing  this  Christmas,  for  mama  hasn't  got  any  money.'  Where  do 
you  live.     'Across  the  street  in  that  wooden  house,'  answered  the  boy. 

You  take  this  five  dollars  over  to  your  mamma  and  then  hurry  back  and  I  will  take  you 
up  town.  So  I  took  them  up  town,  and  got  them  some  warm  clothes  and  then  took  them  to  a 
show.  So  I  spent  fifteen  dollars  on  three  of  them.  There  was  Mother  and  Father  left,  so  I  got 
father  a  shaving  set  which  cost  three  dollars  and  a  half  and  I  got  Mother  some  Hadkerchiefs  for 
a  dollar  and  a  half  which  took  all  my  money.     Merry  Christmas. 

Your  old  friend, 

H . 

On  the  formal  side  there  are  plenty  of  errors  in  these  papers,  in  spelling,  in  punctuation,  in 
sentence  formation,  etc.,  and  one  or  two  seem  rather  formal  and  dry.  But  in  most  of  them  there 
is  evidence  of  some  play  of  the  imagination,  and  fairly  free  expression.  Most  of  the  vocabularies 
seem  adequate,  and  in  such  details  these  samples  seem  to  indicate  that  the  composition  work  is 
fairly  well  taught.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these  are  but  average  compositions,  and  not 
compositions  selected  because  of  their  special  merit. 

Conclusions  and  recommendations.     It  should  be  said  then  in  conclusion:  *  *  * 

4th.  From  the  compositions  written  there  is  ample  evidence  that  the  excellent  aims  for 
English  work,  as  set  forth  in  the  printed  course  of  study,  are  being  achieved,  and  that  many  of  the 
common  errors  of  teaching  the  formal  and  technical  aspects  of  English  work  are  being  successfully 
avoided. 

5th.  It  is  recommended  that  a  portion  of  the  time  now  devoted  to  formal  spelling  drill 
be  given  over,  in  the  early  grades,  to  the  broader  work  in  English,  and  that  by  the  use  of  ungraded 
rooms,  smaller  classes,  and  more  elastic  methods  of  promotion,  the  very  bright  and  the  very 
dull  pupils  be  given  more  adequate  attention  than  is  either  possible  or  economical  under  the 
present  classification.  *  *  * 


♦Report  of  the  Survey  of  the  School  System  of  Butte,  Montana.     Published  by  the  Board 
of  Education,  1914. 

■  '  32 


The  use  of  standardized  tests.  A  final  word  may  be  said  about  the  use  of  standard  tests. 
First,  we  desire  to  commend  the  use  the  supervisors  and  principals  have  been  making  of  these 
modem  educational  tools.  Teachers  should  become  familiar  with  such  scale  and  tests  as  have 
been  used  here,  not  with  how  they  were  made,  but  with  how  to  use  them.  The  teacher  who  is 
able  to  measure  her  own  product,  or  to  have  it  measured  by  the  supervisor,  will  develop  confidence 
in  her  methods  or  discover  reasons  for  changing  them. 

As  an  instrument  in  supervision,  tests  are  indispensable.  Of  course  testing  can  never 
displace  constructive  helpful  criticism,  but  standardized  tests  furnish  a  rational  basis  for  such 
criticism,  without  which  the  best  supervision  is  handicapped.  So  far  as  was  observed  they  are 
being  properly  used  by  the  principals  and  supervisors,  but  they  may  even  go  further  in  displacing 
the  ordinary  form  of  school  examination".  (31) 

In  the  Vocational  Educational  Survey  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  I  find  the 
following  indicated: 

"  'Academic  work  (approximately  half  time).  English:  Language  work  based  on  reading, 
much  of  the  reading  to  bear  upon  industries:  Composition,  dealing  with  the  occupational  work  of 
the  school,  business  correspondence,  business  forms,  spelling,  and  penmanship.' 

The  printing  industry  seems  to  have  a  somewhat  special  course  in  English  but  others  avail 
themselves  of  this  course  also.  The  following  brief  outlines  will  suggest  the  kinds  of  topics  to 
be  studied  and  the  methods  of  treatment.  The  outline  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Technical 
Course  in  English. 

1.  Grammar  and  word  study:  *  *  * 

2.  Punctuation:  *  *  * 

3.  Capitals  and  small  capitals:  *  *  * 

4.  Division  of  words:  *  *  * 

5.  Compound  words:  ♦  *  * 

6.  Abbreviations  and  signs:  *  *  * 

7.  Uses  of  italics:  *  *  * 
■K        8.    Proof  reading:  *  *  * 

If       9.    Preparation  of  printers  copy:"  (32) 

As  to  reports  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  the  following 
is  taken  from  "A  Brief  Summary  of  the  Forthcoming  Report  of  the  National 
Joint  Committee  of  the  Reorganization  of  High-School  English"  (which  is 
being  printed  at  the  present  time  by  .the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education). 
This  report,  shows  the  point  of  view  of  the  Committee.  Among  the  eight 
points  as  given  will  be  found  some  essentials  to  success  in  teaching  high  school 
English,  such  as  (1)  a  properly  trained  teacher,  a  reorganized  school  system,  etc. 
The  points  are  as  follows: 

1.  "The  college-preparatory  function  of  the  hfgh  school  is  a  minor  one.  Hence  the  high- 
hnol  course  in  English  should  be  organized  primarily  with  reference  to  basic  personal  and  social 
rds.     School  life  that  is  genuine  and  hearty  is  the  only  satisfactory  preparation  for  either  "life" 

or  college. 

2.  The  chief  problem  of  articulation  is  with  the  elementary  school  and  can  best  be  solved 
by  regarding  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades  as  the  first  stage  of  high-school  work. 

3.  A  varying  social  background  must  now  be  assumed  and  provided  for.  Nevertheless,  the 
chief  elements  of  the  English  course  are  universal  and  may  furnish  typical  experiences  for  all. 

4.  English  is  not  merely  a  formal  subject,  capable  of  being  mastered  at  a  certain  point  in 
the  curriculum  and  then  dropped.  Life  and  language  grow  together;  hence  the  study  of  English 
should  continue  throughout  the  school  period.  Only  so  much  of  technique  should  be  taught  at  any 
one  time  as  will  actually  enable  pupils  to  improve  their  use  and  understanding  of  the  vernacular. 

5.  Language  is  social  in  nature;  therefore  the  study  of  English  should  appeal  to  pupils  by 
reason  of  actual  social  use  and  recognized  social  value.     Composition  should  be  regarded  as  a 


(31)  Salt  Lake  City  Survey,  pp.  113-146. 
(82)  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  pp.  287-289. 


33 


sincere  attempt  to  communicate  ideas,  and  literature,  both  classic  and  modern,  should  become 
an  expression  of  the  pupil's  own  interests  and  ideals  and  an  interpretation  of  his  own  experience. 

6.  The  study  of  English  as  a  training  for  efficient  work  should  be  distinguished  from  the 
study  of  it  as  a  preparation  for  the  wholesome  enjoyments  of  leisure.  This  will  make  possible  that 
co-operation  of  all  departments  which  is  essential  in  establishing  good  habits  of  reading,  of  thought, 
and  of  expression. 

7.  The  conducting  of  a  school  paper  and  the  organization  of  literartj  and  dramatic  clubs 
should  be  encouraged  and  directed  because  of  the  opportunity  they  afford  for  free  play  for  the 
mind  and  practice  in  expression.  The  spirit  of  the  club — and  of  the  laboratory  and  the  shop  as 
well — should  animate  the  English  classroom  itself.  This  is  now  much  hindered  in  the  cities  by 
the  excessive  number  of  pupils  imposed  upon  the  teacher.  A  second  limitation  to  free,  individual 
effort  is  found  in  the  absences  of  suitable  libraries  and  reading-rooms.  Good  English  work  requires 
adequate  equipment. 

8.  The  supreme  essential  to  success  in  high-school  English,  however,  is  neither  the  course 
nor  the  conditions,  but  the  properly  trained  teacher.  He  should  be  a  professional  imbued  with 
the  amateur  spirit,  having  good  scholarship,  mature  judgment,  rational  educational  standards, 
and  objective  methods  of  measuring  results".  (33) 

The  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  on  the  Study  of  English  embraced 
the  following:  English  Language,  English  Grammar,  Composition,  Rhetoric 
and  Composition.  As  stated  before  in  this  thesis  their  verdict  was  that: 
"The  main  direct  objects  of  the  teaching  of  English  in  schools  seem  to  be 
two:  (1)  'to  enable  the  pupil  to  understand  the  expressed  thoughts  of  others 
and  to  give  expression  to  thoughts  of  his  own;  and  (2)  to  cultivate  a  taste 
for  reading,  to  give  the  pupil  some  acquaintance  with  good  literature,  and  to 
furnish  him  with  the  means  of  extending  that  acquaintance.'  " 

Thus  it  seems,  that  the  fundamental  divisions  of  the  English  curriculum 
are  the  existing  conditions  of  to-day  as  well  as  of  1894.  The  main  direct 
objects  to-day  also  are  similar. 

In  order  to  better  ascertain  the  condition  of  English  Language  and  Liter- 
ature in  the  schools  of  the  United  States,  two  questionnaires  were  sent  out 
called  Questionnaire  "A"  and  Questionnaire  "B".  Questionnaire  "A",  which 
was  sent  to  City  Superintendents  of  Schools,  read  as  follows: 

Questionnaire  "A". 

Under  the  direction  of  the  Department  of  English,  Graduate  School  of 
Education,  University  of  Nebraska,  I  am  gathering  data  on  the  Correlation 
of  Vocational  and  Liberal  Education  through  English  Language  and  Literature 
for  a  six-three-three  High  School  curriculum. 

I  shall  greatly  appreciate  any  information  you  may  be  able  to  give  me 
by  letter  or  printed  matter  which  may  assist  in  properly  unifying  Vocational 
and  Liberal  Education  through  English  Language  and  Literature. 

Please  indicate: 

L    Name  of  city.         2.    Your  name.         3.    Name  of  school. 


(33)  A  Brief  Summary  of  the  Report,  pp.  2-3. 

34 


Questions. 

I.  What  preparation  do  you  expect  of  pupils  entering  the  first  year 
high  school   (Grade  VII)  as  to: 

1.  Technical  English. 

a.  The  extent  of  their  vocabulary? 

b.  Their  knowledge  of  English  Grammar? 

c.  Punctuation  and  capitalization? 

d.  Sentence  structure,  etc.? 

2.  Their  power  of  oral  and  written  expression? 

3.  What  readings  and  studies  in  English  should  be  accomplished? 

II.  What  should  be  accomplished  in  the  first  year  junior  high  school 
English  (Grade  VII)  as  to: 

1.  Technical  English. 

a.  Errors  in  speech? 

b.  Grammar? 

2.  What  facts,  principles  and  laws  of  composition  should  be  learned? 

3.  What  particular  things  should  the  pupil  be  trained  to  do  in  oral 
and  written  composition? 

4.  What  vocational  and  cultural  readings  and  studies  should  be 
required? 

III.  What  should  be  the  character  of  the  work  in  English  as  to: 

1.  Material  used,  i.  e.,  exercises  or  illustrative  material? 

2.  The  kinds  of  subjects  for  compositions? 

3.  Kinds  of  work,  i.  e.,  letter-writing,  verse  writing,  book-reviews, 
essays,  debating,  etc.? 

IV.  How  do  you  test  the  work  from  month  to  month: 

1.  For  increase  of  knowledge? 

2.  For  growth  in  power  of  expression? 

3.  For  increase  in  the  development  of  sensibility? 

V.  How  do  you  judge  of  the  work  at  the  end  of  the  year: 

1.  For  knowledge  of  language  structure,  grammar  and  the  principles 
of  composition? 

2.  For  power  of  expression,  both  oral  and  written? 

3.  For  interest  in  good  books  and  the  ability  to  read  them  intelligently? 

VI.  What  is  your  purpose  or  aim  in  the  six-three-three  high  school 
as  to: 

1.  Teaching  English  in  the  junior  high  school  (Grades  VII,  VIII,  IX) 
as  a  whole? 

2.  Teaching  English  in  the  senior  high  school  (Grades  X,  XI,  XII)  as 
a  whole? 

3.  What  vocational  and  cultural  subject  matter  (studies  and  readings) 
do  you  use  in  the  senior  and  junior  high  school  with  reference  to 
the  correlation  of  Vocational  and  Liberal  Education  through  English 
Language  and  Literature? 


35 


VII.  Do  you   approve  of  supervised  study   in   English   Language   and 
Literature  as  to: 

1.  Discovering  the  capacities  and  aptitudes  of  pupils  for  English? 

2.  Recognizing  individual  differences  in  pupils? 

VIII.  How  far  does  English  Language  and  Literature  in  the  modern 
high  school  supply  the  needs  of  adolescents? 

IX.  Have  you  a  Vocational  Bureau  in  your  school?     To  what  extent 
is  English  considered,  in  connection  with  this  bureau? 

X.  Additional   Comments. 

P.  S. — Please  request  the  head  of  the  Department  of  English  to  answer 
these  questions. 

To  these  questions  the  following  replies  were  given: 

To  the  question  I,  1,  a.  The  answers  were:  "Such  as  you  would  expect 
them  to  have  by  careful  following  of  the  course  of  study  up  to  this  time"; 
"Many  pupils  have  a  vocabulary  of  not  more  than  a  thousand  words,  prob- 
ably"; "I  cannot  answer.  It  varies  with  Nationalities.  I  do  not  know  that 
this  has  been  measured";   "See  'Course  of  Study'  ". 

To  question  I,  1,  b.  One  said,  "Very  limited;  less,  much  less  than 
course  of  study  would  seem  to  indicate;  another  replied,  "Knowledge  of 
Grammar  is  elementary";  Another  said,  "Simplest  elements";  and  one  said, 
"They  have  a  pretty  fair  knowledge  of  Technical  grammar". 

To  question  I,  1,  c.  There  were  various  answers.  One  was,  "Uses  of 
capitals,  periods,  question  mark  and  quotation  mark  are  known.  This  knowl- 
edge, however,  is  not  always  put  to  use";  another  said,  "Very  good  for  their 
age";  and  still  another  said,  "Ordinary  uses  of  period,  comma,  and  interroga- 
tion point  and  the  Elementary  uses  of  capitals". 

To  question  I,  1,  d.  Two  replied,  "Simple,,  compound,  and  complex 
sentences";  one  said,  "Just  fair";  another  replied,  "They  know  the  three 
kinds  of  sentences,  but  use  of  the  complex  sentence  is  limited". 

To  question  I,  2.  The  answers  were  various.  One  was,  "Most  have 
had  good  training  in  topical  recitations,  from  biography,  story  telling,  and 
above  all  in  geography".  Another  said,  "Some  come  from  homes  rich  in 
supplementary  material,  and  these  are  rich  in  ideas  and  speech,  if  there  has 
been  any  sympathetic  relation  between  the  elders  and  the  children";  another 
replied,  "Very  limited";  still  others  said,  "Varies  widely  with  home  environ- 
ment";  "To  speak  and  write  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  their  meaning  clear". 

To  question  I,  3.  The  replies  were  as  follows:  "The  aim  is  shown  in 
the  Course  of  Study.  Some  schools  are  rich  in  supplementary  material,  but 
many  are  poor.  Limitation  to  a  series  of  reading  books,  just  a  little  too 
difficult,  has  deadly  results  upon  reading  habits";  "Longfellow,  heroic  poems, 
selected  poems  of  Nature,  poems  of  patriotism,  and  prose  hero  stories  are 
used  and  myths";  "Interpretation  of  poems  and  pictures  found  in  their 
readers,  memory  gems,  short  selections  of  prose  and  poetry,  preferably  by 
local  authors,  and  dealing  with  local  history".  One  replied,  "We  are  now 
discussing  this  phase". 

To  question  II,  1,  a.    The  answers  were,  "Recognition  of  errors  in  mates 

36 


and  as  heard  outside  of  the  schoolroom  in  home  or  street,  steadily  asked  with 
increasing  sensitiveness";  "These  should  be  catalogued  and  cared  for"; 
''  Disagreement  of  subject  and  predicate;  confusion  of  adjective  and  adverb — 
Forms  of  plural  nouns";  "A  beginning  is  made  with  the  grosser  errors". 
To  question  II,  1,  b.  There  were  various 'answers.  One  said,  "Strong 
verbs  and  use  of  pronouns,  the  main  subjects  of  practice";  another  said, 
"The  general  outlines  without  the  study  of  fine  points,  such  as  infinitive, 
etc.";  and  another  replied,  "We  complete  the  subject  of  grammar  in  the  last 
half  of  the  first  year.     Especial  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  verb". 

To  question  II,  2.  The  replies  were  as  follows:  "A  broader  use  of  the 
complex  sentence  should  be  acquired.  A  beginning  should  be  made  in  para- 
graphing and_  paragraph  development.  Transposition  of  sentences  for  the 
sake  of  smoothness  should  be  touched.  Narration  and  Description  as  forms 
should  be  learned  " ;  "  Develap  the  paragraph  idea.  Teach  the  form  of  personal 
business  letters,  informal  notes  of  invitation,  acceptance  and  declination"; 
"The  mechanics.  Then  set  them  to  writing.  Pupil  should  be  given  eyes 
and  sense  of  arrangement". 

To  question  II,  3.  One  replied,  "They  should  be  trained  to  give  short 
oral  stories,  descriptions,  etc.,  without  notes.  This  should  eliminate  some 
errors  of  spoken  English.  In  written  work  they  should  be  trained  to  write 
complete  sentences.  They  should  be  able  to  write  one  page  stories,  and 
descriptions  fairly  correct  as  to  paragraphing,  spelling,  punctuation,  and 
diction";  another  said,  "Greater  readiness  in  the  use  of  all  material. 
Geography  offers  the  richest  field";  another,  "Avoidance  of  and  and  so  habit 
in  oral  and  written  composition.  Place  a  period  at  the  end  of  every  complete 
sense  thought.  Recognition  of  the  distinction  between  what  is  a  complete 
sentence,  and  what  is  not";  and  still  another  said,  "Get  facts  to  them. 
Arrange  them  in  interesting  form". 

To  question  II,  4.  Answers  were  as  follows:  "Our  classes  in  Com- 
mercial English  read  current  magazines,  including  advertisements.  Especial 
attention  is  given  to  System,  and  Saturday  Evening  Post.  Books,  i.  e.,  fiction 
dealing  with  business  life  should  be  used";  "Whatever  interests  chiefly"; 
"At  least  one  good  book  should  be  read  each  month,  and  a  report  thereon 
made". 

To  question  III,  1.  One  replied:  "Use  1.  Examples  of  the  Text. 
2.  Original  examples  of  teachers.  3.  Illustrations  from  readers  and  other  texts. 
4.  The  themes  of  the  pupils".  Another  said,  "Exercises  and  illustrative 
material  should  be  based  on  pupils'  experience";  another  replied,  "I  can't 
say". 

To  question  III,  2.  The  answers  varied.  One  replied,  "Out  of  the 
liveliest  experience  the  children  have;  with  some,  it  will  come  from  the  play- 
ground, with  others  from  books  and  reading";  another  wrote,  "Subjects  for 
composition  should  be  drawn  largely  from  pupils'  experiences,  descriptions  of 
pets,  vacation  trips,  home  work,  etc.";  another  replied  as  follows:  "I  should 
use  wholly  concrete  subjects  at  first.  Then  historical,  imaginative,  etc."; 
and  still  another  said,  "Dictation  for  capitalization  and  punctuation.  Repro- 
duction; Narration  of  incidents,  stories,  paraphrasing  of  poems,  Biographical 
sketches  of  characters  in  history.  Interpretation  of  pictures  and  poetry". 

37 


To  question  III,  3.  The  answers  were:  "Much  letter  writing;  verse 
writing  if  it  be  spontaneous  and  natural  for  the  individual;  no  book  reviews 
further  than  condensation  of  story  or  other  subject  matter.  Great  interest 
can  be  secured  in  oral  work  through  discussion.  A  first-class  recitation  is 
always  a  debate";  "Some  work  might  be  done  in  business  and  social  letter 
writing.  We  do  this  in  the  second  year,  however,  verse  writing  and  especially 
essay  writing,  may  well  wait.  Book  reviews,  if  given,  should  be  brief.  Critical 
judgment  is  not  abundant  yet.  Debating  arouses  keen  interest.  Subjects 
should  be  carefully  chosen,  that  facts  alone  may  be  dealt  with,  and  theorizing 
and  wrangUng  may  be  avoided";  "Original  themes  dealing  with  experiences, 
which  are,  or  should  be,  a  part  of  the  child's  life;  with  events  chiefly  local,  of 
which  the  child  has,  or  should  have,  knowledge.  No  verse  writing,  book 
reviews,  or  essays  are  written.  No  debates  required.  An  oral  report  in  the 
nature  of  a  summary  of  a  book  each  month  is  required." 

To  question  IV,  1.  The  answers  were  as  follows:  "Monthly  tests"; 
"We  do  not  do  this  successfully";  "Usual  way";  "The  test  at  the  end  of 
each  six  week  period  usually  consists  of  a  written  examination  dealing  with  the 
vital  parts  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  period". 

To  question  IV,  2.  One  said,  "A  comparison  of  written  Themes"; 
another  said,  "Usual  way";  and  still  another  said,  "Frequently  the  examina- 
tion mentioned  under  2  is  graded  as  an  exercise  in  English.  Pupils  are  in- 
formed of  this  and  are  given  time  to  write  with  the  same  care  used  in  preparing 
themes,  also,  the  themes,  from  week  to  week,  serve  to  show  this  growth". 

To  question  IV,  3.  Only  two  answers  were  given:  1st,  "Usual  way"; 
2nd,  "The  selection  of  books  for  home  reading  from  a  general  recommended 
list  indicates  this  development  to  a  certain  extent". 

To  question  V,  1.  Replies  were  as  follows:  "We  give  general  test"; 
"Examinations";  "In  all  subjects  where  possible,  by  comparison  of  early 
work  with  last  work,  early  work  having  been  saved  for  such  purpose";  "The 
final  examination  and  the  last  few  themes,  show  the  use  of  this  knowledge. 
Questions  of  fact  are  covered  in  the  subject  matter  of  this  examination". 

To  question  V,  2.  These  answers  were  given:  "By  the  teacher's  judg- 
ment based  on  a  daily  record  of  school  performance,  for  it  is  assumed  that 
she  has  memory  and  sense";  "Can't  say";  "Examinations";  "The  form 
of  the  final  examination.  When  sufficient  time  is  allowed — or  rather,  when 
questions  are  sufficiently  short — and  the  later  themes  test  the  power  of  written 
expression". 

To  question  V,  3.  Three  rephed  as  follows:  "No  formal  way";  "Some 
effort  is  made  to  keep  track  of  library  lists,  and  summer  reading";  another 
said,  "Home  reading  is  given  some  credit.  A  large  list  of  desirable  books  is 
offered.  The  books  which  the  pupils  choose  are  an  index  to  interest  and 
ability". 

To  question  VI,  1.  Two  answers  were  given:  "To  teach,  to  economize 
English";  "The  aims  laid  down  for  various  courses  are  'To  arouse  interest 
in  literature  for  composition.  To  master  the  main  facts  of  technical  grammar. 
To  appeal  to  and  to  stimulate  the  pupil's  interest;  to  secure  correctness; 
and  to  establish  elementary  standards  of  tests'  ". 


To  question  VI,  2.  Three  replied.  One  said,  "Same  thing";  another 
said,  "If  you  cannot  guess  from  the  spirit  of  what  has  been  written  above 
then  it  is  useless  to  write  further".  The  other  said,  "To  develop  ideals  of 
citizenship  and  patriotism.  To  develop  an  individual  style  and  discriminating 
literary  taste,  etc." 

To  question  VI,  3.     One  said,   "I  do  not  understand  this  question". 

To  question  VII,  1.  These  replies  were  given:  "Depends  upon  the 
Supervisor";  "Yes";  "No";  "Of  course";  "  The  greatest  possibilities  for  super- 
vised study  lie  in  English  composition.  I  see  Httle  value  in  it  for  the  study 
of  literature,  except  in  directing  outside  reading.  If  conditions  allow  special 
work  in  reading,  much,  of  course,  may  be  done  for  the  individual". 

To  question  VII,  2.  Two  said,  "Yes";  one  said,  "No";  the  others 
replied,  "Of  course,  it  certainly  should  be  helpful  in  discovering  individual 
differences". 

To  question  VIII.  One  replied  as  follows:  " Danger  of  too  much  difficulty 
in  selection  used;  also  danger  of  making  subject  too  soft  to  secure  so-called 
interest";  another  replied,  "Just  fairly  well";  one  said,  "To  a  very  Hmited 
degree";  and  still  another  said,  "Their  chief  needs  are  these:  Correctness 
in  writing  and  speaking;  a  taste  for  the  better  forms  of  literature.  I  know 
of  no  school  which  meets  these  needs  wholly.  All,  I  think  make  a  marked 
improvement,  especially  in  writing". 

To  question  IX.  Two  answered,  "No";  one  replied  as  follows,  "English 
is  considered  in  connection  with  nearly  every  subject  and  a  monthly  rating 
in  English  is  given  by  all  teachers  of  other  subjects  than  English";  another 
repHed,  "Our  vocational  work  so  far  has  been  such  as  the  conventional  courses 
in  commerce,  manual  training,  normal  training,  etc." 

To  Additional  Comments,  there  were  no  replies. 

As  a  partial  survey  to  Questionnaire  "A"  I  find  there  were  very 
few  "Junior  High  Schools"  reported.  Most  of  the  superintendents  re- 
ported "No  Junior  High  Schools"  but  sent  "Courses  of  Study"  from  which 
certain  deductions  could  be  made  which  will  be  stated  in  the  final  summary. 
In  the  list  sent  out,  I  find  in  the  returns  the  following  junior  high  schools 
mentioned:  "Binford  Junior  High  School",  Richmond,  Virginia;  "Detroit 
Junior  High  School",  Detroit,  Michigan;  "Washington  Junior  High  School", 
Rochester,  New  York;  "Junior  Course",  Hope  Street  High  School  (a  small 
class).  Providence,  Rhode  Island;  " Prevocational  and  Junior  High  School", 
Lincoln,  Nebraska;  "The  Intermediate  Schools"  (VII-VIII-IX  Grades)  of 
Berkeley,  California,  are  really  Junior  High  Schools,  only  a. difference  of 
name  exists.  I  find  in  my  research  work  that  there  are  probably  about  one 
hundred  "Junior  High  Schools",  many  saying  they  are  preparing  the  way  for 
this  kind  of  school. 

To  the  questions  the  City  Superintendents  from  the  following  cities 
replied: 

Ann  Arbor,  Michigan.  Detroit,  Michigan. 

Atlanta,  Georgia.  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Berkeley,  California.  Hampton,  Virginia. 

Denver,  Colorado.  Kansas  City,  Missouri. 

39 


Kansas  City,  Kansas.  Rockford,  Illinois. 

Lincoln,  Nebraska.  Richmond,  Virginia. 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  Spokane,  Washington. 

Muskogee,  Oklahoma.  Rochester,  New  York. 

Nashville,  Tennessee.  Topeka,  Kansas. 

Omaha,  Nebraska.  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama. 

Portland,  Oregon.  Washington,  District  of  Columbia. 

Providence,  Rhode  Island.  Winona,  Minnesota. 

A  list  of  some  of  the  "Junior  High  Schools",  or  "Intermediate  Schools" 
that  I  found  in  my  research  work,  besides  those  just  mentionejl  are  as  follows: 
Boise,  Idaho.  Los  Angeles,  California. 

Dayton,  Ohio.  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

Decatur,  Illinois.  '    Oakland,  California. 

Duluth,  Minnesota.  Ogden,  Utah. 

Evansville,  Indiana.  Pasadena,  California. 

Grand  Rapids,  Michigan.  Quincy,  Illinois. 

Houston,  Texas.  Richmond,  Indiana. 

Kalamazoo,  Michigan.  *  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Kansas  City,  Kansas.  Topeka,  Kansas. 

There  was  apparently  such  a  similarity  in  the  answers  to  Questionnaire 
"A"  that  there  is  little  need  of  a  summary.  The  greatest  defect  was  shown 
as  regards  Vocational  Subject  Matter,  and  the  development  of  the  sensibilities. 
From  the  course  of  study  sent  of  the  Berkeley,  Cahfornia,  "Intermediate 
Schools"  (Grade  VII-VIII-IX)  I  find  that  these  three  years  of  English 
take  two  definite  forms:  Structural  EngHsh,  or  Language  Study  (Grammar, 
Spelhng  and  Composition);  and  Cultural  English,  or  Reading  and  Literature. 
The  grades  are  designated  as  Low  Seventh,  High  Seventh,  etc. 

% 
Questionnaire  **B" 

'^In  order  to  learn  whether  English  is  well  taught  from  the  business  point 
ol  view  and  how  to  remedy  it,  if  not  so  taught,  a  form  of  questions  called 
Questionnaire  "B"  was  sent  out  to  Commercial  Clubs.  This  was  done  chiefly, 
because  the  Commercial  Clubs  recommend  pupils  for  vocational  work  and  there 
is  a  somewhat  general  complaint  among  business  peoples  as  to  the  inability 
of  pupils  so  recommended  to  use  English  accurately  and  fluently.  The 
Questionnaire  read  as  follows: 

Questionnaire  "B". 

I.     What  is  the  Attitude  of  Employers  of  Commercial  or  Vocational 
Help  towards  English  Language  and  Literature  as  to: 

1.  Whether  the  pupils'  inability  to  use  the  English  language  effectively 
in  business  is  not  a  defect? 

2.  Whether  English  wi  1  yield  the  boy  or  girl  a  social  return? 

3.  What  a  business  man  has  a  right  to  expect  from  a  high  school 
graduate  with  reference  to  English? 

40       . 


4.  Whether  English  as  given  in  the  high  school  is  inefficient?  How 
remedy  it? 

5.  What  constitutes  good  "Business  English"? 

6.  Whether  both  a  vocationally  trained  child  and  a  culturally  trained 
one  should  have  a  minimum  amount  of  vocational  and  cultural 
training  in  English  Language  and  Literature? 

7.  Whether  the  educational  requirements  for  employment  certificates 
of  children  should  show  that  they  have  an  average  ability  to  read, 
write,  and  speak  English? 

8.  Additional  Comments. 
The  replies  were  as  follows: 

To  question  I,  1.  There  were  various  answers,  five  said,  "Yes";  six, 
"Decidedly  so";   all  of  the  others  considered  it  a  very  serious  defect. 

To  question  I,  2.  Seven  replied,  "Yes";  others  said,  "It  Avill";  while 
still  othefs  said,  "Unquestionably  so";  the  rest  replied  as  follows:  "In  an 
English  speaking  nation,  what  could  be  of  greater  advantage  than  to  know 
one's  own  language"?  "Mastery  of  English  fundamentals,  is  the  first  and 
broadest  vocational  subject,  and  wages  depend  on  this  as  directly  as  on  any 
other  vocational  accomplishment". 

To  question  I,  3.  Seven  answered,  "Ability  to  speak,  write,  and  spell  the 
English  language  correctly";  other  replies  were,  "Correct  response  to  em- 
ployer, and  customer,  and  correct  usage  of  English  in  correspondence";  "A 
high  school  graduate  should  be  able  to  speak,  write,  and  punctuate  with 
facility.  It  is  absolutely  essential,  for  the  successful  selling  or  promoting  of 
his  own,  or  the  other  man's  service  or  goods". 

To  question  I,  4.  There  was  a  great  diJBference  of  opinions.  The  majority 
agreeing  that  it  is  inefficient,  as  many  high  school  graduates  are  poor  spellers, 
and  know  very  little  about  how  to  construct  a  sentence  correctly,  or  even 
paragraph  correctly.  As  to  the  remedy,  some  of  the  replies  were:  "Too 
much  attention  paid  to  Literary  English,  without  special  emphasis,  on  Business 
English";  "Better  equipped  instructors  at  higher  salaries";  "The  solution 
is  up  to  the  University  and  the  teacher". 

To  question  I,  5.  The  replies  were  as  follows:  Four  referred  to  question  3. 
Others  said,  "Good  Business  English  is  not  different  from  any  other  kind  of 
good  English";  "A  good  background  in  English  grammar,  literature  and  com- 
position, with  proper  emphasis  on  letter-writing,  paragraphing,  punctuation, 
and  spelling  are  necessary";  "Good  vocabulary,  simplicity,  directness,  clear- 
ness". 

To  question  I,  6.  The  majority  answered  "Yes",  and  others  said,  "In 
both  cases";  other  replies  were  as  follows:  "Not  a  minimum,  but  a  maximum 
amount  of  training  in  the  English  language";  "A  vocationally  trained  child 
should  have  a  maximum  amount  of  vocational,  and  cultural  training  in  Eng- 
lish literature";  "By  all  means,  combination  of  the  two,  most  valuable"; 
"Business  men  do  not  see  the  need  for  any  great  difference  between  the  train- 
ing vocationally  of  children,  and  the  culturally  trained,  for  they  think  that 
all  should  have  good  command  of  the  common  tools  of  language  including 
ability  to  write  a  clear,  direct,  simple  business  letter,  and  the  habit  of  reading 

41 


general  literature  and  appreciating  it.  It  is  just  as  good  for  the  child  voca- 
tionally trained,  as  the  one  culturally  trained". 

To  question  I,  7.  Nearly  all  replied  "Yes";  "By  all  means".  In 
addition  to  these  one  said,  "A  certificate  should  imply,  that  he  has  an  average 
ability  to  read,  write,  and  speak  English  correctly". 

To  question  I,  8.  Additional  Comments. — The  few  comments  are  as 
lollows:  "I  do  not  think  the  average  business  man,  unless  he  has  given  special 
consideration  to  these  questions,  is  qualified  to  pass  an  opinion,  worthy  of 
much  consideration". — (St.  Paul,  Minnesota.) 

"The  experience  of  nearly  all  mechanics  is,  that  they  were  not  taught 
enough  mathematics,  or  the  right  kind.  Then,  they  regret  their  inability  to 
express  themselves,  either  on  paper,  or  in  speech". — (Sioux  City,  Iowa.) 

"If  the  public  high  schools  placed  greater  stress  on  a  thorough  training 
in  English  language  and  literature,  it  would  prove  of  much  greater  benefit, 
at  least  to  the  student  who  enters  the  business  world,  than  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek,  or  higher  mathematics.  Because  a  thorough  training  in  English 
would  pave  the  way  for  further  development  in  later  life  and  create  a  desire 
for  learning,  which  too  often  terminates,  when  the  student  leaves  school. 
The  answers  given  to  your  questions  are,  of  course,  m'erely  a  matter  of  personal 
opinion,  based  upon  observation  of  associates  in  the  business  world". — (Oak- 
land, California.) 

"Please  send  me  a  copy  of  your  conclusions". — (Little  Rock,  Arkansas.) 

"More  direction  in  practical  teaching  at  the  cost  of  (by  elimination)  some 
departmental  instruction  which  is  valueless  (practically)  to  students  in  after 
life". — (Rockford,  Illinois.) 

"Such  changes  must  be  made  in  our  high  curriculums  that  will  give  to 
the  employer  graduates  that  have  at  least  the  rudiments  of  reading,  writing 
and  to  speak  the  English  as  it  should  be,  with  a  heavy  emphasis  upon  spelling, 
together  with  not  so  much  a  vocational  training,  as  an  ability  to  do  things 
correctly  and  with  an  underlying  mind  foundation  that  permits  them  to 
grasp  ordinary  business  principles". — (Sandusky,  Ohio.) 

"As  a  former  high  school  instructor,  especially  in  'Commercial  Corre- 
spondence', I  would  say  that  the  poor  English  students  turned  out  from  the 
high  school  are  due  not  from  a  lack  of  facilities  but  from  lack  of  teaching 
ability  and  method.  It  can  be  improved  greatly.  Actual  work  and  less 
rules,  especially  rules  that  they  will  never  apply  in  actual  practice,  would 
greatly  help  this  movement  for  better  English". — (Elgin,  Illinois.) 

"This  is  my  personal  opinion,  and  of  course  can  be  greatly  enlarged. 
I  am  answering  these  questions  with  the  understanding  that  the  boy  or  girl 
expects  to  enter  a  business  office.  English  training  is  not  so  essential  for 
the  boy  or  girl  who  is  to  do  manual  labor". — (Denver,  Colorado.) 

"I  find  that  some  merchants  do  not  seem  to  take  into  consideration  the 
ability  of  their  clerks  to  speak  and  write  English  correctly.  The  reason  for 
this  can  be  easily  explained.  They  never  received  such  training  themselves 
and  are  not  progressive  enough  to  serve  the  best  trade.  The  merchants  who 
are  abreast  of  the  times,  progressive,  and  alert,  are  also  anxious  that  their 
clerks  make  a  good  impression  upon  their  trade  and  in  order  to  do  this  they 

42 


realize  that  the  clerk  must  be  able  to  converse  in  good  English". — (Kearney, 
Nebraska.) 

The  letter  from  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce  I-  quote  in  full, 
as  it  seems  very  much  to  the  point: 

"1.  Business  men  regard  inability  to  use  the  English  language,  together 
with  inability  to  figure  accurately,  as  the  greatest  single  defect  in  our  American 
education. 

2.  Mastery  of  English  fundamentals  is  the  first  and  broadest  vocational 
subject,  and  wages  depend  on  this  as  directly  as  on  any  other  vocational 
accomplishment, 

3  and  4.  High  school  English  partly  remedies  the  defects  of  the  grade 
schools  in  the  mastery  of  the  tools  of  language,  and  markedly  increases  the 
general  intelligence.  Many  leading  houses  are  trying  to  make  it  a  rule  to 
employ  only  high  school  graduates.  Yet  the  high  school  graduate  needs  still 
serious  training  on  the  fundamentals  of  English. 

5.  Good  "Business  English"  first  of  all  requires  ability  to  spell  near  the 
100' t  point  the  list  of  words  commonly  used  in  letter  writing,  a  habit  of 
correctness  (grammatical)  in  speaking  and  in  writing  letters,  ability  to  punc- 
tuate intelligently,  and  power  to  write  a  letter  in  simple,  direct,  plain  language, 
with  a  certain  human  quality  that  will  win  the  customer.  But  business  men 
feel  these  ought  to  be  mastered  by  the  end  of  the  8th  grade,  or  in  the  first 
year  in  the  high  school,  and  students  who  go  to  the  later  years  of  the  high 
school  ought  to  have  the  broad  intelligence  that  general  cultural  reading 
develops,  and  also  some  knowledge  of  the  practical  psychology  of  sales  letter 
writing,  advertising  and  personal  salesmanship,  with  good  training  in  talking 
well. 

6.  Business  men  do  not  see  the  heed  for  any  great  dififerentiation  between 
the  training  of  vocationally  trained  children  and  culturally  trained,  for  they 
think  that  all  should  have  good  command  of  the  "common  tools  of  language", 
including  ability  to  write  a  clear,  direct,  simple  business  letter,  and  the  habit 
of  reading  general  literature  and  appreciating  it.  It  is  just  as  good  for  the 
child  vocationally  trained  as  the  one  culturally  trained. 

7.  Business  men  have  thought  very  little  about  certificates  and  the  like, 
but  would  naturally  be  inclined  to  consider  it  an  uncommonly  good  idea  if 
school  pupils  might  come  to  them  with  some  evidence  of  standard  command 
of  English,  or  some  measure  of  ability  in  which  they  would  have  confidence, 
such  as  an  outside  test. 

I  would  be  very  glad  to  learn  the  results  of  your  study. 

Very  truly  yours, 

C.  R.  Bebble, 
Manager,  Civic  and  Industrial  Department". 
To  these  questions  the  following  clubs  replied : 
Association  of  Commerce:  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 
Chamber  of  Commerce:  Roanoke,  Virginia. 
Chamber  of  Commerce:  Rockford,  Illinois. 
Chamber  of  Commerce:  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. 

43 


Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Columbia  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Columbia,  South  Carolina. 

Commercial  Club:  Elgin,  Illinois. 

Commercial  Club:  Sioux  City,  Iowa. 

Commercial  Club:  Little  Rock,  Arkansas. 

Commercial  Club:  Fargo,  North  Dakota. 

Denver  Civic  and  Commercial  Association:  Denver,  Colorado. 

Hannibal  Commercial  Club:  Hannibal,  Missouri. 

Jackson  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Jackson,  Michigan. 

Kearney  Commercial  Club:  Kearney,  Nebraska. 

Los  Angeles  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Los  Angeles,  California. 

Oakland  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Oakland,  California. 

Philadelphia  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

Sandusky  Federated  Commercial  Club:  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Seattle,  Washington. 

Washington  Chamber  of  Commerce:  Washington,  District  of  Columbia. 

A  summary  of  Questionnaire  "B"  may  be  stated  as  follows: 
Questionnaire  "B"  reveals  conditions  with  regard  to  Business  English 
that  calls  for  immediate  reform  for  these  reasons: 

The  pupil's  inability  to  use  the  English  language  effectively  in  business  is 
considered  a  very  serious  defect  because  the  proper  use  of  English  will  yield 
him  an  economic  and  a  social  return.  A  high  school  pupil  should  be  able  to 
speak  and  write  correctly  and  with  facility.  It  is  essential  for  the  successful 
selling  or  promoting  of  his  own  or  the  other  man's  service  or  goods.  He  should 
possess  a  vocabulary  which  enables  him  to  express  his  thoughts  forcefully 
and  efficiently.  The  Enghsh  as  given  in  the  high  school  is  extremely  inefficient. 
Some  of  the  causes  given  for  this  are  the  need  of: 

"Better  and  more  specific  text-books;  better  equipped  instructors  at  higher  salary;  a  lack 
of  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  of  the  necessity  of  such  training,  and  last  but  not  least 
the  "fault  lies  with  what  is  taught  or  the  method  of  teaching  for  the  results  are  not  happy". 

Good  "Business"  English  should  enable  a  pupil  to  express  himself  in 
such  a  way  that  he  may  be  understood  where  various  shades  of  meaning  might 
place  a  different  phase  upon  the  different  business  transactions.  A  voca- 
tionally trained  pupil  and  a  culturally  trained  one  should  have  a  minimum 
amount  of  vocational  and  cultural  training  in  English  Language  and  Literature, 
as  a  combination  of  the  two  are  very  valuable  in  order  to  make  him  a  well 
developed  person.  He  should  have  the  ability  to  read,  write  and  speak 
English  efficiently  before  he  secures  an  employment  certificate,  for  in  an 
English  speaking  nation,  what  is  of  greater  worth  than  to  know  one's  own 
language? 

In  the  Outline  for  Vocational  Guidance  through  English  Composition 
some  of  the  themes  mentioned  were:  Vocational  Ethics;  Social  Ethics;  and 
Civic  Ethics.     These  grade  themes  were  for  the  high  school  pupils.     As  there 

44 


is  a  close  relation,  in  many  respects,  between  what  we  may  call  "High  School 
Ethics"  and  "College  Ethics",  I  cite  the  following  on  "College  Ethics": 

"A  refreshing  series  of  ethical  waves  have  recently  swept  over  our  country,  resulting  in  a 
purging  of  the  commercial,  political  and  social  atmosphere,  creating  a  new  type  of  moral  sense; 
the  wording  of  this  theme  suggests,  however,  that  the  crusade  against  existing  evils  has  penetrated 
less  deeply  into  collegiate  circles  than  into  the  arena  of  the  business  world.  The  phrase  'college 
ethics',  seems  to  imply  that  the  man  so  fortunate  as  to  be  registered  in  a  college,  may  be  governed 
by  ethical  law  unlike  that  outside  the  classic  halls  of  learning,  that  the  Golden  Rule  does  not 
apply  to  the  gownsmen  in  the  same  way  as  to  the  townsmen.  *  *  *  A  teacher's  power  is  infinitely 
more  in  what  he  is,  than  what  he  teaches.  'How  can  I  hear  what  you  say',  said  Emerson,  'when 
what  you  are  is  continually  thundering  in  my  ears?'  It  is  this  contact  of  student  life  with  that 
of  the  faculty  that  counts  for  more  than  all  else  in  the  morals  of  our  institutions.  .Really  the 
strongest  lessons  that  we  teach  are  the  lessons  we  do  not  teach,  but  those  that  emanate  from  our 
personality.  *  *  *  History  is  replete  with  examples  of  such  teachers,  among  them  Thomas  Arnold 
of  Rugby  stands  pre-eminently;  the  secret  of  Arnold's  marvelous  power  lay  not  in  his  superior 
academic  training,  but  in  the  fact  that  his  heart  throbbed  with  greatness  and  goodness  which 
reached  out  and  touched  and  moulded  the  lives  of  his  boys,  whose  sports  and  studies  he  shared. 
Mary  Lyon  of  Mount  Holyoke,  by  her  consistent  life,  ever  held  before  her  young  women  the 
ideals  of  a  fine,  noble  womanhood;  so  completely  were  these  ideals  ingrained  in  the  lives  of  these 
students  that  they  reflected  them  everywhere  they  went  in  after  life.  It  is  this  subtle  influence 
of  heart  upon  heart,  and  soul  upon  soul  that  counts  for  ethics  in  the  college  halls,  without  which 
all  formal  instruction  is  worthless.  Such  has  been  the  influence  of  Aristotle,  Plato,  Socrates, 
Aquinas,  Era.smus,  Savonarola,  Pestalozzi,  Arnold,  Mary  Lyon  and  a  galaxy  of  others  who  have 
lived  and  taught  down  through  the  ages.  With  such  teachers,  the  ethical  life  of  our  colleges 
will  revive  and  send  out  such  a  moral  force  as  will  eliminate  the  evils  of  the  commercial,  political 
and  social  world  against  which  legislation  is  now  directed".  (13) 

I.     What  Some  Practical  Workers  say  about  English. 

1.  The  teachers  of  the  Horace  Mann  School  write  as  follows: 

"The  study  of  English  naturally  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  school  program — Regard- 
ing it  as  the  most  efficient  means  of  culture  at  our  command,  we  make  it  the  'core',  as  Dr.  Nicholas 
Murray  Butler  styles  it,  of  our  curriculum,  devoting  more  time  to  it  than  to  any  other  subject, 
and  considering  it  the  chief  standard  for  measuring  the  progress  and  ability  of  our  pupils. 

Our  aim  is  the  obvious  one — to  train  the  children  to  use  their  mother-tong:ue  more  effectively 
in  speaking  and  writing,  and  to  gain  some  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  its  literature.  In  school- 
room practice  the  subject  groups  itself  as  follows: 

1.  Reading  and  Literature. 

2.  Composition. 

3.  Language  Work  and  Grammar".  (41) 

2.  Hall  in  Adolescence  and  Literature  says: 

"I  am  persuaded  that  Quintillian  was  right  when  he  declared  that  the  simple  reading  of 
great  works,  such  as  national  epics  'will  contribute  more  to  the  unfolding  of  students  than  all 
the  treatises  of  all  the  rhetoricians  that  ever  wrote.'  At  the  dawn  of  adolescence  I  am  convinced 
that  there  is  nothing  more  wholesome  for  the  material  of  English  study  than  that  of  the  early 
mythic  period  in  Western  Europe.  I  refer  to  the  literature  of  the  Arthuriad  and  the  Sangrail, 
the  stories  of  Parsifal,  Tristram,  Isolde,  Galahad,  Gawain,  Geraint,  Siegfried,  Brunhilde,  Roland, 
the  Cid,  Orlando,  Lancelot,  Tannhauser,  Beowulf,  Lohengrin,  Robin  Hood,  and  Rolando.  This 
material  is  more  or  less  closely  connected  in  itself,  although  falling  into  large  groups.  Much  of  it 
bottoms  on  the  Nibelungen  and  is  connected  with  the  old  Teutonic  mythology  running  back  to 
the  gods  of  Asgard.  We  have  here  a  vast  body  of  ethical  material,  characters  that  are  almost 
colossal  in  their  proportions,  incidents  thrilling  and  dramatic  to  a  degree  that  stirs  the  blood  and 
thrills  the  nerves.  It  is  a  quarry  where  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  Spencer,  Scott,  Tennyson,  Ibsen, 
and  scores  of  artists  in  various  lines  have  found  subject-matter.  The  value  of  this  material 
makes  it  almost  Biblical  for  the  early  and  middle  teens,  and  is  increased,  from  whatever  point 


(13)  Fordyce,  pp.  71-79. 

(41)  Teacher's  College  Record,  p.  143. 


45 


of  view  we  scrutinize  it,  for  this  purpose.  In  a  sense,  it  is  a  kind  of  New  Testament  of  classical 
myths.  *  *  *  Morals  and  ethics,  which  are  never  so  inseparable  as  at  this  period,  are  here  found 
in  normal  union.  *  *  * 

This  material  educates  the  heart  at  an  age  when  .■ientiment  is  predominant.  *  *  *  Hero  worship 
is  developed  by  a  role  of  noble  deeds,  a  castle  album  of  portraits  of  heroes,  the  reading  together 
of  heroic  books,  the  offering  of  ranks  in  the  peerage,  and  the  sacred  honor  of  the  perilous  for  ath- 
letic, scholarly,  or  self-sacrificing  attainments. 

Some  would  measure  the  progress  of  culture  by  the  work  of  reinterpreting  on  even  higher 
planes  the  mystic  tradition  of  a  race,  and  how  this  is  done  for  youth  is  a  good  criterion  of  pedagogic 
progress. 

This  spirit  is  organized  in  and  its  fitness  shown  in  the  growth  and  success  of  the  Knights  of 
King  Arthur,  an  unique  order  of  Christian  knighthood  for  boys,'  based  upon  the  romantic  hero- 
loving,  play-constructing,  and  imaginative  instincts  which  ripen  at  about  fourteen.  Its  purpose 
is  to  bring  back  to  the  world,  and  especially  to  its  youth,  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  courtesy,  deference 
to  womanhood,  recognition  of  the  noblesse  oblige  and  Christian  daring  of  that  kingdom  of  knight- 
liness  which  King  Arthur  promised  that  he  would  bring  back  when  he  returned  from  Avalon. 
'In  this  order  he  appears  again.'  It  is  found  in  the  model  of  a  college  Greek  letter  fraternity, 
with  satisfaction  for  the  love  of  ritual,  mystery,  and  parade." 

And  again  he  says: 

"By  general  consent,  both  high  school  and  college  youth  in  this  country  are  in  an  advanced 
stage  of  degeneration  in  the  command  of  this  the  world's  greatest  organ  of  the  intellect,  and  that 
despite  the  fact  that  the  study  of  English  often  continues  from  primary  into  college  grades,  that 
no  topic  counts  for  more,  and  that  marked  deficiencies  here  often  debars  from  all  other  courses. 
Every  careful  study  of  the  subject  for  nearly  twenty  years  shows  deterioration,  and  Professor 
Shurman,  of  Nebraska,  thinks  it  now  worse  than  at  any  time  for  forty  years. 

Such  a  comprehensive  fact  must  have  many  causes: 

I.  One  of  these  is  the  excessive  time  given  to  other  languages  just  at  the  psychological 
period  of  greatest  linguistic  plasticity  and  capacity  for  growth. 

II.  The  second  cause  of  this  degeneration  is  the  subordination  of  literature  and  content 
to  language  study.     Grammar  arises  in  the  old  age  of  language. 

III.  It  is  hard  and,  in  the  history  of  the  race,  a  late  change  to  receive  language  through  the 
eye  which  reads  instead  of  through  the  ear  which  hears. 

IV.  The  fourth  cause  of  degeneration  of  school  English  is  the  growing  preponderance  of 
concrete  words  for  designating  things  of  sense  and  physical  acts,  over  the  higher  element  of 
language  that  names  and  deals  with  concepts,  ideas,  and  non-material  things. 

The  first  result  of  this  is  that  the  modern  school  child  is  more  and  more  mentally  helpless 
without  objects  of  sense."  (17) 

3.     Margaret  Sherwood,  assistant  Professor  of  English  Literature  in 
Wellesley  College,  Massachusetts,  since  1912,  writes  that: 

"The  great  meanings  of  literature  should  be  taught,  not  dogmatically,  but  with  reverent 
effort  to  interpret,  to  become  aware  of  many  kinds  of  insight  into  the  mysteries  of  existence,  to 
let  life  grow  great  in  finding  how  different  thinkers,  searchers  for  the  light,  struggled,  won,  or 
failed.  That  large  reading  of  human  life  and  experience  that  shows  us  growth  achieved,  perhaps, 
through  failure,  doubt,  despair,  must  be  ours.  While  we  may  not  always  share  the  conclusion, 
we  are  wiser  for  sharing  the  struggle;  the  aspirations  of  many  an  one  with  whose  convictions 
we  should  not  agree  may  prove  the  truest  stimulus;  all  is  safe  so  long  as  the  great  issues  of  life 
are  conceived  as  spiritual  issues.  *  *  * 

It  is  frankly  for  its  civilizing  power  that  we  need  this  study,  not  for  remote  questions  of 
scholarship  involving  intellectual  gymnastics.  The  highest  type  of  literature,  the  most  imag- 
inative, the  most  idealistic,  should  be  brought  to  bear  upon  life;  the  young  should  know  their 
Carlyle  and  their  Ruskin,  their  Browning  and  their  Keats,  their  Shakespeare,  Bishop  Berkeley 
and  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  as  they  now  know  brake  and  lever,  pulley  and  piston,  and  the  wriggling 
of  the  amoeba  under  the  microscope.     They  should  be  taught  that:    '  'A  good  book  is  the  precious 


'(Described  in  the  Boy  Problem,  by  its  founder,  William  B.  Forbush.     Chicago,  1901,  p.  91.) 
(17)  Hall,  pp.  442,  445,  456. 

46 


life-blood  of  a  master-spirit,  embalmed  and  treasured  up  on  purpose  to  a  life  beyond  life.'  *  *  *  We 
need  to  teach  the  message,  the  supreme  importance  of  literature  as  soul  revelation,  with  less  of  the 
outer  covering,  more  of  the  divine  intent,  that  the  young  may  be  made  to  feel  the  impact  of  the 
intellectual  and  spiritual  past  experience  of  the  race  as  expressed  in  terms  of  beauty."  (37) 

4.  Aristotle  says  of: 

"The  Origin  and  Development  of  Poetry,  Psychologically,  Poetry  may  be  traced  to  two 
causes,  the  instinct  of  Imitation,  and  the  instinct  of  'Harmony'  and  Rhythm. 

Historically  viewed.  Poetry  diverged  early  in  two  directions:  traces  of  this  twofold  tendency 
are  found  in  the  Homeric  poems:  Tragedy  and  Comedy  exhibit  the  distinction  in  a  developed 
form. 

Poetry  in  general  seems  to  have  sprung  from  two  causes,  each  of  them  lying  deep  in  our 
nature.  First,  the  instinct  of  imitation  is  implanted  in  man  from  childhood,  one  difference 
between  him  and  other  animals  being  that  he  is  the  most  imitative  of  living  creatures;  and 
through  imitation  he  learns  his  earliest  lessons;  and  no  less  universal  is  the  pleasure  felt  in  things 
imitated.  *  *  *  .  .^ 

Imitation,  then,  is  one  instinct  of  our  nature.  Next,  there  is  the  instinct  for  'harmony' 
and  rhythm,  metres  being  manifestly  sections  of  rhythm.  Persons,  therefore,  starting  with  this 
natural  gift  developed  by  degrees  their  special  aptitude,  till  their  rude  improvisations  gave  birth 
to  Poetry."  (1) 

5.  James  F.  Hosic,  Head  of  Department  of  English,  Chicago  Teachers 
College,  informs  us  that: 

"An  outline  of  English  to  guide  the  teachers  of  a  school  is,  in  a  sense,  a  necessary  evil  *  *  *, 
But  English  as  a  subject  of  study  does  not  lend  itself  readily  or  happily  to  definite  outlining.  **  * 
The  word  English  has  come  to  signify  a  group  of  studies  called  language,  composition,  word  study, 
reading,  literature,  grammar,  and  even  penmanship.  For  clearness  it  is  worth  while  to  observe 
that  only /our  distinct  but  related  activities  are  involved:  hearing,  speaking,  reading,  and  writing 
English.  The  essential  purpose  of  these  studies,  moreover,  is  only  twofold:  to  become  able  to 
express  yourself  and  to  understand  others".  (19) 

6.  The  Joint  Committee  informs  us  that: 

1.  "Training  in  composition  is  of  equal  importance  with  the  study  of  literature,  and  should 
have  an  equal  allowance  of  time.  Composition  work  should  find  place  in  every  year  of  the  school 
course. 

2.  Subjects  for  compositions  should  be  drawn  from  the  pupil's  life  and  experience.  To  base 
theme  work  mainly  upon  literature  studies  leads  pupils  to  think  of  composition  as  a  purely  academic 
exercise,  bearing  little  relation  to  life. 

3.  Oral  work  should  be  conducted  in  intimate  relations  with  written  work,  and  ordinarily 
the  best  results  will  follow  when  both  are  taught  by  the  same  teacher. 

4.  Theory  and  practice  should  go  hand  in  hand.  The  principles  of  grammar  and  rhetoric 
should  be  taught  at  the  time  and  to  the  extent  that  they  are  aids  to  expression. 

5.  If  examinations  are  given,  they  should  be  framed  as  to  be  a  test  of  power  rather  than  of 
memory. 

The  general  purpose  of  teaching  oral  expression  in  the  schools  is  to  make  possible  in  the 
lives  of  the  people  an  accurate,  forceful  living  speech  which  shall  be  adequate  for  ordinary  inter- 
course and  capable  of  expressing  the  thoughts  and  emotions  of  men  and  women  in  other  relations 
of  life.  Recognizing  the  fact  that  the  impulses  to  converse,  to  sing,  to  narrate,  to  picture,  and 
to  portray  (mimic  and  dramatize)  are  racial  traits  of  long  standing,  and  that  the  ability  to  be 
effective  and  interesting  in  these  forms  of  expression  is  of  enduring  social  importance,  it  becomes 
the  task  of  the  teacher  to  provide  incentive  and  occasion  for  the  normal  exercise  of  these  impulses, 
and  to  free  the  channels  of  expression  by  establishing  right  habits  of  thought  and  by  developing 
the  organs  of  speech.  It  is  likewise  natural  for  men  to  enjoy  in  others  excellence  and  skill  in 
speech  and  portrayal,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  auditory  taste  and  the  dramatic  sense  enhances 


(37)  Sherwood,  pp.  888,  889. 
(1)  Aristotle,  pp.  1,  15,  17. 
(19)  Hosic,  pp.  4-7. 


47 


the  enjoyment  of  these  forms  of  art.     Such  enjoyment  it  is  the  privilege  and  function  of  the  school 
to  promote. 

The  essential  object  of  the  literature  work  of  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  years  is  so  to  appeal  to 
the  developing  sensibilities  of  early  adolescence  as  to  lead  to  eager  and  appreciative  reading  of 
books  of  as  high  an  order  as  is  possible  for  the  given  individual,  to  the  end  of  both  present  and 
future  development  of  his  moral,  emotional,  aesthetic,  and  mental  nature.  To  this  general  purpose, 
stated  somewhat  more  in  detail  in  the  first  three  paragraphs  below,  all  other  purposes  must  be 
secondary".  (33) 

7.    Percival  Chubb  in  "Teaching  of  English"  quotes  Sainte-Beuve  as 
follows: 

"I  hold  very  little  to  literary  opinions.  Literary  opinions  occupy  very  little  place  in  my  life 
and  thoughts.  What  does  occupy  me  seriously  is  life  itself  and  the  object  of  it.  Chubb  further 
says:  This  is  cited  by  a  disciple,  Matthew  Arnold.who  takes  the  same  attitude  holding  that  poetry. 
Literature  generally,  is  to  be  appraised  according  to  its  soundness  as  a  criticism  of  life.  And  these 
two  men  are  above  suspicion  on  literary  grounds;  both  had  an  exquisite  sense  of  the  beauty  of 
literary  art  and  of  the  excellences  of  style.  Let  us  too,  then  use  Literature  in  this  spirit  to  aid 
our  young  men  and  women  to  interpret  life,  to  see  life,  to  respond  to  the  spectacle  and  drama 
of  life.  *  ♦  * 

In  prescribing  the  literature  that  is  to  be  read  during  the  High  School  period,  we  must  allow 
several  factors  to  count.  These  may  be  ranged  under  two  main  divisions:  first,  the  characteristics, 
the  needs,  and  the  interests  of  the  adolescent  period;  and  secondly,  the  vocational  and  social 
demands  made  upon  High  School  education.  The  two  requirements  must  be  kept  in  mind: 
General  culture,  or  education  for  a  typical,  ideal  manhood  and  womanhood;  and  preparation  to 
meet  the  actual  demands  of  life  and  a  specific  kind  of  social  environment.  Education  cannot 
simply  be  for  power  and  for  general  culture;  it  must  likewise  be  a  novitiate  for  life,  and  must  clear 
an  opening  into  the  vocations.  The  very  important  facts  must  be  faced  that  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  High  School  graduates  conclude  their  academic  education  when  they  graduate;  and 
yet  that  large  numbers  pass  from  the  High  School  into  the  professional  and  technical  schools, 
omitting  college  training.  Most  of  them  go  forth  into  the  shops  of  the  world  to  labor  severally 
according  to  gifts  and  opportunities;  some  into  a  technical  institute  to  serve  as  an  apprentice- 
ship in  a  selected  calling;  others,  into  college.  The  High  School  should,  therefore,  enable  them 
to  discover  their  gifts,  and  should  have  emphasized  their  cultivation  with  an  outlook  toward 
the  vocation  for  which  they  fit.  The  public  expects  as  much;  and  from  the  American  point  of 
view,  rightly  so.  A  vast  amount  of  time  is  being  wasted  in  collegiate  education  upon  unpropitious 
material  that  needs  other  methods  of  treatment. 

The  High  School  course  in  English,  therefore,  must  be  framed  to  subserve  this  double  prepara- 
tion: it  must  aid  in  the  preparation  for  social  and  personal  life, — that  is,  for  manhood  and  woman- 
hood and  citizenship;  it  must  also  aid  in  the  choice  of,  and  advance  toward,  a  vocation.  In- 
cidentally it  must  dovetail  into  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  and  craftsmanship,  academic 
and  professional.  Incidentally,  we  say,  because  these  institutions  have  no  peculiar  demands  to 
make  on  the  High  School  other  than  those  which  these  schools  should  make  for  themselves, — ' 
namely,  that  the  work  they  undertake  to  do  shall  be  well  done.  Of  these  two  general  purposes, 
that  of  general  culture  must  be  the  controlling  one.  We  have  many  types  of  character  to  keep 
in  mind  and  to  develop.  All  we  can  do  is  to  allow  free  play  of  these  considerations  upon  the 
problem  of  selection."  (8) 

8.    Hampton  Institute,  Virginia,  in  its  Academic-Normal  Courses  in 
English  uses  the  following: 

"The  aim  of  the  English  course  is  to  develop  in  pupils  the  ability  to  use  the  mother  tongue 
in  both  oral  and  written  speech  with  clearness,  correctness,  and  facility.  To  secure  this  end,  a 
progressive  line  of  reading,  oral  and  written  composition,  and  grammar  is  carried  on  throughout 
the  course. 

During  the  first  year,  the  work  consists  of  reproduction  exercises,  letter  writing,  and  short 
oral  and  written  compositions  based  on  personal  experiences,  the  work  of  other  lessons,  the  trades, 
the  occupations,  and  the  activities  of  school  life. 


(33)  Joint  Committee.     (Report  being  printed.) 
(8)  Chubb,  pp.  237-241. 

48 


The  technical  grammar  in  this  year  includes  a  detailed  study  of  all  the  parts  of  speech. 
Common  errors  receive  special  attention. 

The  work  of  the  second  year  completes  the  study  of  technical  grammar,  and  here  again 
the  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  practical  side  of  grammar;  but  composition — with  special  attention 
to  oral  composition  on  trade  subjects,  the  writing  of  both  friendly  and  business  letters,  and  long 
and  short  themes  on  interesting  subjects — is  still  the  core  of  the  work. 

The  third  year  continues  the  effort  to  apply  the  rules  of  grammar  to  the  problems  of  the 
student's  own  language.  Oral  expression  has  a  good  share  of  the  time,  and  argumentation  is 
emphasized  by  having  frequent  class  debates.  The  written  composition  illustrates  as  far  as 
possible,  the  three  forms  of  writing — exposition,  narration,  and  description. 

In  the  fourth  year  rhetoric  is  planned  to  give  the  mature  subject  more  of  the  theory  of  the 
English  language,  more  practice  in  its  use  as  governed  by  good  style,  and  a  wider  acquaintance 
with  the  best  authors.     One  period  a  week  will  be  given  to  a  study  of  etymology. 

The  work  in  oral  composition  is  made  as  practical  and  personal  as  possible  throughout  the 
course.  The  Trade  School  and  Agricultural  Department  furnish  lists  of  subjects  suggested  by 
their  work,  and  these  give  an  endless  variety  of  topics  for  short  oral  expositions. 

The  reading  is  carefully  planned.  Not  only  does  the  student  purchase  one  book  for  reading 
each  year — the  nucleus  of  his  future  library — but  he  also  has  access  to  a  great  many  other  volumes. 
Some  of  these  latter  are  read  in  their  entirety  in  class;  others  are  read  in  part  and  the  pupil  has 
an  opportunity  of  finishing  them  out  of  school  hours. 

The  first-year  list  includes:  Around  the  World  in  the  Sloop  Spray,  Dicken's  Christmas 
Carol,  Heroic  Ballads,  Hyde's  Speaker,  Lincoln's  Speeches,  Man  Without  a  Country,  Moore's 
Life  of  Columbus  and  Life  of  Lincoln,  The  Story  of  the  Chosen  People,  Scudder's  Washington, 
Snow  Bound,  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast,  Birds  and  Bees,  Dole's  American  Citizen,  England's 
Story,  Miles  Standish,  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  Hero  Stories,  Scottish  Chiefs,  The  Ship  of  State, 
The  Sketch  Book,  Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare,  Seawell's  Twelve  Naval  Captains,  The  Great 
Stone  Face,  etc. 

The  second-year  list:  Braddock's  Defeat,  A  Bunch  of  Herbs,  The  Cable  Book,  David 
Copperfield,  The  Life  of  Frederick  Douglas.  The  Future  of  the  American  Negro,  Grandfather's 
Chair,  Hiawatha's  Hunting  of  the  Bear,  Ivanboe,  The  Lanier  Book,  A  Message  to  Garcia,  Mun- 
ger's  on  the  Threshold,  The  Page  Book,  The  Roosevelt  Book,  Self-Culture,  Stories  of  the  Old 
Dominion,  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Paul  Revere's  Ride  and  Other  Poems,  Twice-Told  Tales,  The 
Spy,  Franklin's  Autobiography,  Holmes's  Poems,  Peasant  and  Prince,  Plutarch's  Lives,  Tales  of 
the  White  Hills,  Westward  Ho!,     The  Van  Dyke  Book,  etc. 

The  third-year  list:  Julius  Caesar,  Hamlet,  Southey's  Life  of  Nelson,  The  Merchant  of 
Venice,  King  Lear,  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  Tales  of  a  Grandfather,  The  Talisman,  Quentin  Durward, 
Self-Cultivation  in  English,  Silas  Marner,  Southern  Prose  and  Poetry,  The  Toilers  of  the  Sea, 
Burke's  Conciliation,  The  Cambridge  Book  of  Poetry,  British  Authors,  Bacon's  Essays,  Selections 
from  Tennyson,  Carlyle's  Essay  on  Burns,  etc. 

The  literature  used  in  the  fourth  year  illustrates  the  principles  of  rhetoric.  The  Huntington 
Memorial  Library  is  well  supplied  with  standard  literature,  which  is  available  for  use  in  academic 
classes. 

The  memorizing  of  certain  selections  is  required  in  every  year;  and  every  student  owns  a 
book  of  quotations  compiled  by  the  department.  Students  are  also  furnished  with  a  book  list 
for  use  in  the  selection  of  general  reading.  Every  effort  is  made,  through  the  use  of  material 
suited  to  the  student's  capacity,  to  interest  him  in  reading  and  to  develop  a  taste  for  good  books." 

II.     Some  of  the  variQus  views  held  as  to  Vocational  Guidance  and 
Vocational  Education  in  the  Secondary  Schools. 

1.    E.  P.  Cubberly,  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  informs  us  as 
follows: 

"Starting  originally  as  an  outgrowth  of  and  a  slight  variation  from  the  Old  Latin  school 
and  the  academy,  with  a  limited  curriculum,  and  with  its  right  to  existence  questioned  in  the 
courts  in  almost  every  state  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  the  public 
high  school  has  gradually  been  accepted  by  our  people  and  has  been  established  as  one  of  the 
most  important  institutions  of  our  democratic  society.     Unlike  the  European  secondary  school, 

49 


our  secondary  public-school  system  is  one  'of  the  people  and  for  the'i)eople*,  and  the  best  interests 
of  ovir  democratic  life  demand  that  we  always  keep  it  so.  *  *  * 

The  past  sixteen  years  have  witnessed  great  changes  and  very  significant  changes  in  every 
feature  of  our  national  life.  We  live  in  a  new  world,  and  the  need  for  new  and  larger  knowledge 
to  aid  us  in  understanding  and  coping  with  the  new  conditions  are  very  apparent.  'The  develop- 
ment of  secondary  schools  since  1890,  and  particularly  since  1900  has  every  where  been  remark- 
able'. *  *  *  The  secondary  school,  if  it  is  to  realize  its  highest  educational  purpose,  should  pre- 
eminently be  a  place  for  the  testing  of  capacity,  the  development  of  tastes,  and  the  opening  up 
of  vocational  opportunities  of  many  kinds.  *  *  *  Let  me  interpret  both  vocational  and  liberal 
culture  in  a  rather  broad  and  liberal  way.  What  constitutes  vocational  education  has  been 
defined  differently  by  different  men.  Some  would  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  term  to  industrial 
training  only,  but  as  I  conceive  vocational  education  the  term  should  mean  something  much 
broader. 

The  whole  question  of  what  liberal  and  what  vocational  studies  are  can  be  defined  only  in 
terms  of  individuals.  What  is  vocational  for  one  is  liberal  for  another.  The  study  of  chemistry, 
for  example,  which  is  usually  classified  with  the  technical — vocational  group,  and  is  so  for  the 
future  chemist  or  engineer,  is  broadly  libei-al  when  pursued  by  the  classical  student.  The  same 
is  true  of  geology,  biology,  economic  or  modem  industrial  history.  Conversely,  courses  as  litera- 
ture, world  history,  economics,  and  the  life  and  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome  would  be  liberal 
studies  to  the  technical  or  the  scientific  student. 

That  the  present  trend  toward  vocational  education — technical,  commercial,  agricultural, 
domestic,  and  even  vocational  in  the  narrower  sense — will  undoubtedly  face  a  more  general 
acceptance  of  new  definitions  of  what  constitutes  liberal  culture  can  hardly  be  doubted,  but  that  it 
will  do  aught  to  decrease  the  number,  either  actual  or  proportional,  of  persons  possessed  of  a 
good  sound  education  may  well  be  doubted".  (9) 

2.    G.  W.  Gayler,"  Superintendent  of  Schools,   Canton,   Illinois,   as  to 
Vocational  Guidance  says: 

"Four  years  ago  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  eighth  grade  pupils  in  our  schools  were  asked 
among  other  things  to  give  their  choice  of  a  life  work.  In  classifying  and  summarizing  the  answers 
we  found  there  were  thirty-seven  different  occupations  mentioned.  *  *  * 

This  study,  extending  over  a  period  of  four  years  and  as  yet  incomplete,  seems  to  point  to 
several  conclusions.  First,  a  large  percentage  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls  do  not  definitely  decide 
upon  their  life  Work  until  late  in  the  high  school  course,  perhaps  often  not  until  the  course  is 
completed.  Secondly,  a  large  percentage  of  these  students  vacillate,  now  choosing  one  thing 
and  now  another,  influenced  often  by  the  most  interesting  thing  at  the  time  the  choice  is  made, 
perhaps  influenced  by  the  personality  of  a  popular  teacher,  or  by  the  subject  of  study  with  which 
the  mind  is  filled  at  that  particular  time.  Thirdly,  there  is  a  greater  school  life  expectancy  for 
those  who  remain  constant  in  choice  than  for  those  who  change.  *  *  * 

I  am  fully  convinced  from  the  study  I  have  made  that  the  kind  of  guidance  we  need  in  our 
schools  today  is  that  which  will  lead  the  boys  and  girls  into  higher  grades  of  school  work  and  the 
advice  they  need  most  is  that  which  will  cause  them  to  remain  longer  in  school.  *  *  * 

The  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  create,  cherish,  and  foster  ideals.  No  one  thing  has 
more  effect  on  the  future  life  of  the  children  than  this.  The  teacher,  like  Agnes  in  David  Copper- 
field,  should  always  be  pointing  the  way  upward.  This  is  the  best  thing  the  teacher  can  do. 
In  my  own  life  nothing  has  helped  guide  me  so  much  as  the  ideals  formed  by  contrast  with  men 
whom  I  admired,  and  by  reading  biographies  of  great  men.  Ideals  presented  in  great  selections 
of  literature  have  inspiration  for  the  student  if  properly  presented  by  the  teacher.  Talks  by  the 
teacher,  principal  or  superintendent  on  the  value  of  education,  financial  and  cultural,  given  to  the 
school  as  a  whole,  or  to  individuals,  discussions  concerning  different  vocations  and  opportunities 
will  help  pupils  to  understand  the  value  of  .the  school  to  them,  and  the  aid  which  it  attempts  to 
give  each  student.  Finally,  the  question  of  vocational  guidance  in  so  far  as  the  high  school  ought 
to  deal  with  it,  is  concerned  with  the  abridgement  and  enrichment  of  the  course  of  study.  The 
course  of  study  must  be  vitalized.  It  must  touch  life  at  more  points.  It  must  appear  worth 
while  to  boys  and  girls.     Vocational  guidance  has  to  do  with  every  subject  of  study  and  every 


(9)  Cubberly,  pp.  454-465. 

50 


recitation.  It  is  not  a  new  subject  to  be  brought  into  the  course.  It  must  be  handled  not  by  a 
new  teacher  added  to  the  corps.     It  should  vitalize  every  subject  and  every  lesson.  *  *  * 

Vocational  guidance  has  to  do  with  the  kind  of  work  ofifered  in  the  school,  with  the  way  work 
is  done  in  schools,  with  the  inspiration  breathed  by  the  teacher  into  her  class,  with  the  advice 
which  she  gives  when  the  boy  comes  to  her  with  his  problems.  Every  teacher  should  be  a 
counsellor.  Every  teacher  must  be  interested  in  boys  and  girls,  far  more  in  these  than  in  Latin, 
or  history  or  science  or  literature  alone  or  any  subject  whatever.  *  *  * 

In  conclusion  let  me  say  then,  that  there  is  a  place  in  high  school  for  vocational  guidance. 
We  ought  to  have  more  of  it,  but  it  should  come  in  largely  through  the  regular  work  and  in  many 
places,  rather  than  in  one  place  through  one  teacher  teaching  a  particular  subject.  Every  subject, 
every  lesson  has  in  it  great  possibilities.  Every  teacher  is  and  must  be  a  counsellor  and  guide  of 
youth".  (16) 

3.    Frederick  G.  Bonser  of  Columbia  University  says  that: 

"Courts  even  interpret  constitutions  as  placing  property  rights  above  human  rights.  Seven 
of  our  states  exempt  children  entirely  from  most  of  the  restrictions  on  child  labor  in  the  canning 
industries  on  the  ground  that  these  industries  deal  with  perishable  materials — thus  setting  a 
higher  value  on  sweet  corn,  tomatoes  and  beans  than  upon  child  life  and  its  rights  to  natural 
growth! 

Ten  states  permit  children  under  fourteen  to  work  in  factories  and  workshops.  Eight  states 
still  let  boys  of  twelve  work  in  mines.  Thirty-five  states  do  not  have  the  protection  of  the  eight 
hour  day  for  their  working  children.  Although  given  expression  over  half  a  century  ago  in 
England,  Mrs.  Browning's  'Cry  of  the  Children'  is  charged  with  as  much  meaning  and  need  for 
response  in  America  today,  many  children — 

'*  *  *  are  weeping  in  the  playtime  of  the  others, 
In  the  country  of  the  free  *  *  * 

They  know  the  grief  of  man  without  its  wisdom; 
They  sink  in  man's  despair  without  its  calm; 
Are  slaves  without  the  liberty  of  Christdom; 
Are  martyrs  by  the  pang  without  the  palm.' 

And  to  those  who  know  details  of  shop  life,  and  of  the  home  life  in  the  thirteen  thousand 
tenement  houses  in  New  York  City  licensed  for  the  making  and  finishing  of  clothing  where  the 
labor  of  all  the  members  of  the  family  can  be  utilized  without  reference  to  age  or  factory  law, 
Thomas  Hood's  'Song  of  the  Shirt'  chants  a  message  as  true  for  us  to-day  as  it  was  a  century 
ago  in  the  land  across  the  sea.     Women,  men,  and  children  as  well,  here: 


I 


♦*  *  *  Stitch-stitch-stitch, 
In  poverty,  hunger  and  dirt. 
Sewing  at  once  with  a  double  thread, 
A  shroud  as  well  as  a  shirt.' 


In  seeking  for  this  common  denominator  of  experience  in  establishing  common  ideals,  I 
submit  that  the  same  great  appeals  made  to  men  and  women  of  culture  by  the  best  products  of 
man's  creative  genius  are  universal.  The  same  masterpieces  of  literature,  art,  and  music  which 
stimulate  appreciation,  aspiration,  and  deeds  of  service  among  men  and  women  who  practice 
law,  medicine  and  theology  appeal  just  as  strongly  to  men  and  women  who  practice  in  wood- 
work, metals,  or  textiles  when  these  masterpieces  are  presented  to  them  aright.  When  dramas 
or  concerts  of  a  high  order  are  offered  in  the  New  Theatre,  or  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  or 
in  the  parks  especially  to  the  people  of  industrial  and  commercial  vocations,  our  newspaper  editors 
manifest  surprise  that  these  people  are  so  appreciative,  and  so  uplifted.  It  would  only  be  sur- 
prising if  they  were  not.  The  distribution  of  human  nature  in  its  fundamental  elements  is 
democratic. 


(16)  Gayler,  pp.  161-166. 

51 


1st 

I 


Securing  a  point  of  contact  for  the  working  man  with  the  products  of  genius  other  than 
that  which  is  mechanical  seems  to  be  one  of  the  great  difficulties.  This  difficulty  certainly  lies 
partly  in  the  deplorably  low  and  insufficient  ideals  and  methods  in  the  selecting  and  teaching  of 
masterpieces  in  literature,  art,  music,  and  history  in  the  public  schools.  The  narrowness  in 
selection  and  the  academic  method  of  instruction  both  contribute  to  the  sad  fact  that  these  sub- 
jects often  fail  entirely  to  awaken  any  appreciative  response  in  the  boys  and  girls  to  whom  they 
are  taught.  The  literature,  art,  and  music  do  not  all  need  to  be  about  industrial  activities  to 
reach  the  life  interests  of  the  individual  workers.  They  too  have  the  problems  and  fears  and  hopes 
that  find  comfort  in  the  expressions  of  the  best  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  master  poets,  artists, 
and  musicians.  Man  must  have  an  anchorage  in  something  of  permanent  worth  to  which  he 
may  relate  the  efforts  of  his  daily  life.  'Man's  reach  should  exceed  his  grasp',  said  Browning's 
Del  Sarto.  It  is  perspective,  character,  idealism,  appreciation  of  higher  possibilities  that' all 
men  need  to  make  them  rise  to  realization  of  their  fullest  capacities.  'The  hand  can  never 
execute  anything  higher  than  the  character  can  inspire,'  said  Emerson. 

Our  workingman's  character  is  our  concern  quite  as  much  as  the  cunning  of  his  hand.  To 
develop  this  attitude  of  mind  that  will  give  the  man  an  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  sig- 
nificance of  his  work  is  the  problem.  That  great  and  unrealized  possibilities  lie  in  the  appeals 
of  the  literary  masterpieces  which  might  be  appropriately  used  in  schools,  an  examination  of 
available  material  will  certainly  reveal.  Points  of  contact  almost  direct  with  the  craftsman's 
work  are  found  in  the  best  contributions  of  the  great  masters.  Go  with  George  Eliot  into  the 
shop  of  one  Antonio  Stradivarius,  a  maker  of  violins,  and  hear  his  words  to  his  profligate  artist 
friend: 

'Who  draws  a  line  and  satisfies  his  soul, 

Making  it  crooked  where  it  should  be  straight? 

*  *  *  God  be  praised, 

Antonio  Stradivarius  has  an  eye 

That  winces  at  false  work  and  loves  the  true  *  *  * 
'Tis  God  gives  skill, 

But  not  without  man's  hands.     He  could  not  make 

Antonio  Stradivarius'  violins 

Without  Antonio.' 

This  conception  of  the  workingman's  co-operation  with  God  in  the  progressive  creation  of 
the  social  world  lifts  the  craftsman  from  the  plane  of  ar tisanship  to  that  of  art,  no  matter  what  the 
work  may  be.  Emerson  identifies  man  with  the  Creator  in  his  resolution  of  man's  world  to  his 
needs  in  these  lines: 

'The  hand  that  rounded  Peter's  dome. 

And  groined  the  aisles  of  Christian  Rome 

Wrought  in  a  sad  sincerity; 

Himself  from  God  he  could  not  free; 

He  builded  better  than  he  knew; — 

The  conscious  stone  to  beauty  grew.' 

Shakespeare,  Browning,  Tennyson,  Kipling,  Carlyle,  George  Eliot,  Dickens,  Victor  Hugo, 
Emerson  and  many  others  whose  perspective  of  social  relationship  was  broad  and  deep,  have 
given  us  much  that  has  peculiar  fitness  for  the  man  whose  vocational  contribution  is  made  by 
the  united  cunning  of  brain  and  hand. 

Would  not  the  acquaintance  of  the  boy  and  girl  with  such  master  appeals  from  literature 
showing  that  there  are  points  of  common  interest  with  their  everyday  work  lead  them  to  set  a 
new  value  upon  literary  treasures?  It  is  not  his  work  in  itself  that  is  so  destructive  to  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  industrial  worker.  It  is  rather  that  he  has  so  little  else  in  his  life.  In  Shop,  Browning 
utters  a  protest  against  the  narrowness  of  life  which  is  so  characteristic  of  our  day: 

'Because  a  man  has  shop  to  mind 
In  time  and  place,  since  flesh  must  live. 
Needs  spirit  lack  all  life  behind, 
All  stray  thoughts,  fancies  fugitive. 
All  loves  except  what  trade  can  give? ' 

52 


One  of  the  great  purposes  of  any  worthy  education  is  to  teach  men  and  women  how  to  use 
their  time  of  leisure  so  that  it  is  an  uplift  to  them  rather  than  a  stumbling  block.  They  must  be 
taught  to  look  up  for  their  pleasures  and  not  down.  If  history,  literature,  art,  and  music  are  to 
reach  out  through  life  and  enrich  its  leisure  as  well  as  to  dignify  and  ennoble  its  work,  the  interest 
in  these  and  the  appreciation  of  their  possibilitiei.  must  be  cultivated  in  the  schools."  (6) 

G.  Stanley  Hall  says: 

"The  last  decade  has  witnessed  a  remarkable  new  movement  on  the  part  of  colleges  to 
mfluence  high  schools,  which  began  with  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  printed  in  1893. 
We  have  also  had  Reports  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  Nine,  Twelve,  Fourteen,  Fifteen,  besides 
that  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  1896  on  entrance  requirements  which  invoked  the 
aid  of  the  American  Historical  and  Philological  Associations.  In  general  these  influences  have 
worked  from  above  downward,  the  dominating  influence  and  the  initiative  in  most  cases  coming 
from  colleges  or  universities.  That  this  movement  did  good  for  a  time  no  one  can  deny.  It 
has  made  many  junctures  between  secondary  and  higher  education;  greatly  increased  the  interest 
of  facilities  in  high  schools;  given  the  former  fruitful  pedagogic  themes  for  their  own  discussions; 
brought  about  a  more  friendly  feeling  and  better  mutual  acquaintance;  given  slow  colleges  a 
wholesome  stimulus;  made  school  courses  richer,  given  them  better  logical  sequence;  detected 
many  weak  points;  closed  gaps;  defined  standards  of  what  education  means;  brought  great 
advantages  from  uniformity  and  co-operation,  and  no  doubt,  on  the  whole,  has  improved  the 
conditions  of  college  entrance  examinations  and  aided  in  continuity."  (17) 

While  this  movement  seems  to  have  made  a  satisfactory  juncture  between 
the  secondary  and  the  higher  education,  it  has  not  done  much  if  anything 
for  the  articulation  between  elementary  schools  ending  with  Grade  VI  and  the 
now  so-called  junior  high  schools,  or  intermediate  schools  (Grades  VII,  VIII, 
IX).  This  is  now  what  we  are  striving  for,  i.  e.,  a  closer  and  better  articulation 
between  the  pre-adolescent  period  and  the  adolescent  one  for  the  great  in- 
dividual differences  in  pupils  are  then  quite  marked.  We  may  define  ele- 
mentary education  as  the  pre-adolescent  stage  and  secondary  education  as  the 
adolescent  stage. 

Again  Hall  says: 

"Psychic  adolescence  is  heralded  by  all-sided  mobilization.  The  child  from  9  to  12  is  well 
adjusted  to  his  environment  and  proportionally  developed;  he  represents  probably  an  old  and 
relatively  perfected  stage  race-maturity,  still  in  some  sense  and  degree  feasible  in  warm  climates, 
which,  as  we  have  previously  urged,  stands  for  a  long-continued  one,  a  terminal  stage  of  human 
development  at  some  post-simian  point.  *  *  * 

The  ethical  life  is  immensely  broadened  and  deepened,  the  flood  gates  of  heredity  are  thrown 
open  again  as  in  infancy.  Early  adolescence  in  some  respects  is  the  infancy  of  man's  higher  nature. 
The  boy  or  girl  moves  about  in  both  an  inner  and  an  outer  world.  *  *  * 

The  'teens'  are  emotionally  unstable  and  pathetic."  (17) 

Shall  we  not  then  strive  to  furnish  noble  literature  and  good  environ- 
ments for  both  the  vocationally  trained  and  the  liberally  trained  pupil  so  as 
to  help  him  to  live  a  worthy  life,  especially,  in  this  early  adolescent  stage, 
which  seems  to  be  the  foundation,  so  to  speak,  of  one's  higher  nature? 

General  Summary:  These  reports  on  existing  conditions  as  to  English 
Language  and  Literature  cover  a  very  wide  range.  The  condition  of  English 
Language  and  Literature  needs  to  be  improved.  The  results  obtained,  show 
some  improvement,  yet  a  sad  need  is  felt  for  better  trained  teachers,  better 


(6)  Bonser,  pp.  43-47. 
(17)  Hall,  pp.  508,  71-74. 


53 


environments  and  better  organized  work  along  the  lines  of  English.  A 
variety  of  ends  may  be  subserved  by  English  study,  but  subsidiary  interests 
should  never  be  allowed  to  encroach  upon  the  main  purposes  of  it,  that  is, 
such  as:  To  enable  the  pupil  to  give  expression  to  thoughts  of  his  own  and 
to  understand  the  expressed  thoughts  of  others;  to  cultivate  in  the  pupil  a 
taste  for  reading;  to  give  the  pupil  some  acquaintance  with  good  literature 
and  furnish  him  the  means  of  coming  in  touch  with  this  literature.  In  other 
words,  the  objects  to  be  gained  by  the  study  of  English  are,  primarily,  these: 
The  power  to  use  it  effectively  in  reading,  in  literature,  in  speaking,  and  in 
writing;  and  a  more  complete  command  of  our  own  language.  In  every 
school  library  there  should  be  a  collection  of  books  of  references,  supplementary 
readers,  bulletins,  etc.  If  English  is  well  studied  it  makes  for  accuracy: 
(1)  of  observation  in  seeing  just  what  is  printed  and  in  hearing  just  what  is 
said;  (2)  of  speech  in  producing  careful  pronunciation,  and  a  workable 
vocabulary  by  selecting  the  exact  word  for  the  thought.  We  should  have,  as 
a  rule,  less  technical  grammar  and  that  should  be  applied  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  seem  stale  to  the  pupil;  more  Vocational  Literature  should  be  used 
in  our  English  Courses  and  there  should  be  a  reorganization  of  our  Secondary 
School  System  and,  last  but  not  least,  better  trained  teachers. 


54 


Part  III. 
THE  PROBLEM 


THE  PROBLEM. 

All  phases  of  Correlating  Vocational  Education  and  Liberal  Education 
through  English  Language  and  Literature  are  not  to  be  considered  in  this 
thesis.  Only  two  phases  will  be  considered:  (1)  As  to  subject  matter,  or 
material  of  Vocational  Literature  and  General  Literature,  as  given  in  the 
Course  of  Study  for  English,  and  (2)  As  to  the  method,  or  process  of  correlating 
these  two  kinds  of  Literature  which  are  of  the  Vocational  type  and  of  the 
Liberal  type  of  Education. 

The  Correlation  of  Vocational  Education  and  Liberal  Education  through 
English  Language  and  Literature  may  be  accomplished,  partially,  through  the 
study  material,  the  reading  material,  and  the  oral  and  written  composition. 
By  the  last  is  meant  the  theme  work  as  outlined,  or  suggested  in  the  Course 
of  English  Study  in  this  thesis.  This  material,  however,  must  be  so  used,  as 
to  increase  the  cognitive  activities,  the  affective  activities,  and  the  conative 
activities  of  the  pupil's  mind. 

Sensibility  in  a  psychological  sense  includes  both  the  sensory  activities 
and  the  affective  activities  of  the  world  of  experience.  Sensibility  in  a  literary 
sense  includes,  primarily,  the  affective  activities  and  only  secondarily  the 
sensory  activities.  As  tools  to  earn  a  living,  we,  as  a  rule,  discard  the  affective 
activities  of  Hfe.  But  the  affective  activities  which  form  the  literary  conscious- 
ness must  be  developed. 

Vocational  Education  does  not  develop,  primarily,  the  cultural  forces  of 
the  pupil's  mind,  but  it  does  increase,  mainly,  the  vocational  information  and 
does  promote,  mainly,  the  capacity  to  earn  a  living. 

Liberal  Education  does  not  promote,  primarily,  the  pupil's  capacity  to 
earn  a  living  and  does  not  increase,  primarily,  the  pupil's  vocational  information, 
but  it  does  develop,  mainly,  the  cultural  forces  of  the  pupil's  mind. 

The  Academic,  or  Liberal  course  (as  defined  in  this  thesis)  cannot  help 
the  pupil  to  his  full  power  in  the  business  world.  The  Vocational  course,  which 
is  being  gradually  introduced  into  our  schools  cannot  help  the  pupil  to  his 
full  value  in  cultural  service.  There  must  be  a  correlation  of  the  two  courses, 
especially  in  English,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  have  a  well-balanced  educa- 
tion. While  the  Liberal,  or  Cultural  course  may  have  more  value  for  the 
teacher,  or  the  literary  person,  it  is  also  essential  to  the  vocationally  trained 
pupil  in  order  that  he  may  live  more  completely. 

The  problem  in  correlating  vocational  education  and  liberal  education 
through  English  Langi;^ge  and  Literature  is  to  give  culture  as  well  as  knowl- 
edge, or  information  to  the  vocationally  trained  pupil  and  knowledge,  or 
information  as  well  as  culture  to  the  liberally  trained  one.  How  can  this  be 
done?  It  must  be  accomplished,  in  order  to  be  the  most  effective,  both  by 
general  organization  and  by  methods  of  teaching. 

It  seems  from  investigations  already  reported,  that  the  public  school 
system  should  be  reorganized  into  the  following  divisions:  Kindergartens, 
elementary  schools,  junior  high  schools,  and  senior  high  schools.     The  Inter- 

57 


mediate  School  as  now  found  in  some  systems  is  the  same  as  the  Junior  High 
School,  merely  an  interchange  of  terms.  .  The  Course  of  Study  in  English  as 
suggested  in  this  thesis  is  outlined,  primarily,  for  the  six-three-three  plan,  or 
for  the  junior  high  school  and  for  the  senior  high  school.  .  It  can  be  modified, 
however,  to  suit  local  conditions. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  junior  high  school  is  a  high  school  lowered  to  the 
seventh  grade,  with  due  regard  for  the  rather  Hmited  experiences  and  training 
of  pupils  of  twelve  or  thirteen  years.  The  junior  high  school  should  not 
receive  pupils  until  they  have  completed  the  elementary  work  of  the  six  grades. 
This  elementary  scheme  should  be  of  a  general  nature,  and  largely  academic. 
The  junior  high  school  is  well  fitted  to  foster  the  wide  variety  of  prevocational, 
or  try-out  activities  through  which  only  a  boy  or  girl  can  be  sure  of  making 
a  wise  choice  of  a  vocation.  This  early  choice  is  necessary,  as  many  pupils 
can  not  longer  remain  in  the  school. 

The  junior  high  school  should  provide  for  at  least  five  courses  at  each 
center.  A  required  group  and  four  elective  groups — one  strongly  academic, 
one  commercial,  one  agricultural  and  one  in  "Practical  Arts".^ 

The  senior  high  school  should  provide  for  at  least  six  courses  at  each 
center — a  required  group,  and  five  elective  groups, — an  academic,  a  pro- 
fessional, a  commercial,  an  agricultural,  and  a  "Technical  Arts"  group. ' 

There  are  at  least  three  steps  in  the  method  of  preparing  pupils  for 
creative  and  productive  work  along  every  line:  (1)  A  period  of  general  educa- 
tion is  necessary,  a  period  when  the  base,  or  foundation  for  all  occupations 
and  future  work  is  laid.  The  pupils  should  obtain  this  education,  largely 
academic,  in  the  elementary  schools  (Grades  I-VI  inclusive),  ending  when 
the  pupil  has  reached  approximately  the  twelfth  year.  All  callings  in  life 
require  a  certain  amount  of  general  education  before  eflftcient  preparation  for 
a  specific  occupation  can  profitably  commence.  (2)  There  must  be  also,  a 
prevocational  period  of  training  when  boys  or  girls  should  be  finding  them- 
selves vocationally  and  trying  themselves  out  to  determine  which  calling  in 
life  they  should  prepare  for  and  pursue.  (3)  There  must  be  also  a  period  for 
vocational  training  proper — a  time  when  the  aim,  primarily,  of  the  instruction 
should  be  to  prepare  directly  for  the  particular  calling  he  or  she  expects  to 
follow  if  they  are  vocationally  trained.  This  is,  also,  the  period  for  academic 
training  proper — a  time  when  the  aim,  primarily,  is  preparatory  along  academic 
lines,  for  college  or  university  work. 

A  knowledge  about  and  an  interest  in  the  various  fundamental  occupa- 
tions of  life,  habits  of  thinking  and  working,  powers  of  observation  and  gaining 
control  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body  are  necessary  prerequisites  for  any 
and  all  the  many  kinds  of  work. 

In  the  reorganization  plan  under  which  the  school  department  of  Berkeley, 
California,  is  now  working,  which  was  inaugurated  January,  1910,  the  twelve 

^Practical  Arts  usually  include  industrial  arts,  domestic  science  and  agriculture  but  the  term 
varies. 

^Technical  Arts  usually  include  cooking,  sewing,  mechanical  drawing,  art,  crafts  and 
shop — (wood  work,  metal,  machine). 

58 


grades,  or  years,  are  divided  into  three  groups;  the  Elementary  group,  com- 
prising the  first  six  years  of  school  life  (exclusive  of  the  kindergarten);  the 
Intermediate  School  group  (Grades  VII-VIII-IX),  and  the  Upper  High 
School  group  (Grades  X-XI-XII).  This  Intermediate  group  is  the  same 
as  the  Prevocational  and  Junior  High  School  group,  the  Junior  High  School, 
as  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  or  the  Central  School  group  as  used  by  other  schools. 
On  a  somewhat  similar  basis,  the  Course  of  English  Study,  in  this  thesis,  is 
laid. 

Los  Angeles,  California,  J.  H.  Francis,  superintendent.  In  September, 
1910,  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  several  schools  in  one  section  of  Los 
Angeles  were  assembled  at  the  San  Pedro  Street  School  (B.  W.  Reed,  principal) 
for  departmental  work,  in  which  certain  optional  subjects  were  offered  and 
in  which  promotion  was  made  by  points.  So  well  did  the  experiment  succeed, 
that  in  September,  1911,  four  buildings,  suitable  at  points  central  to  im- 
portant attendance  districts,  were  cleared  of  lower-grade  children  and  filled 
with  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades,  who  were  drawn  from  the  schools 
which  they  formerly  attended.  The  department  also  committed  itself  to 
the  plan  of  extending  the  high  school  upward  two  years  as  well  as  down- 
ward. Ultimately,  when  all  details  have  been  worked  out,  the  school  depart- 
ment will  comprise  the  following  groups:  An  elementary  division,  beyond 
the  kindergarten,  of  six  years;  an  "intermediate-school"  division  of  three 
years;  and  a  "high-school"  period  covering  five  years  and  giving  work  which 
is  the  equivalent  of  that  to  be  had  in  the  freshman  and  sophomore  years  of 
college  curricula.  The  last  two  years  of  the  five  year  high-school  period  is 
now  known  as  "The  Los  Angeles  Junior  College",  consisting  of  grades  XIII 
and  XIV. 

Superintendent  Francis,  in  speaking  of  the  organization,  writes  as  follows: 

"This  grouping  is  necessary  from  physiological,  psychological,  and  sociological  viewpoints. 

Physiologically  and  psychologically  the  content  of  things  taught  and  the  method  of  presenta- 
tion should  differ  with  the  preadolescent  and  the  adolescent  child.  The  principles  involved  are 
too  well  known  to  the  teacher  to  justify  discussion.  With  the  facts  so  patent  and  well  known, 
the  marvel  is  we  have  tolerated  the  present  grouping  so  long. 

From  the  sociological  viewpoint  we  hope  to  benefit  greatly  the  child  who  will  attend  high 
school,  the  child  who  will  not  attend  high  school,  the  pupils  who  will  go  to  the  university,  and 
the  pupils  who  will  not  go  to  the  university.  Of  these  groups  we  regard  the  second  and  last  as 
the  greatest  importance.  A  fifth  thing,  and  no  less  important,  we  hope  to  accomplish  is  that 
of  holding  boys  and  girls  in  school  through  the  only  logical  and  rational  means,  that  of  interest 
in  the  work  they  are  doing. 

I  have  no  doubt  but  that  the  new  grouping  will  result  in — (1)  A  saving  of  time.  All  that 
is  meritorious  that  we  accomplish  in  our  16  years  of  school  work  can  be  done  better  in  14  years 
under  proper  organization.  There  is  enough  that  we  are  not  doing,  and  that  should  be  done, 
to  occupy  the  other  two  years. 

(2)  A  conservation  of  right  ideals.  The  attitude  of  the  average  pupil  toward  scholarship 
and  mental  attainments  is  not  sound,  and  as  a  result  our  schools  are  not  producing  thinkers.  I 
believe  the  content  and  methods  of  instruction  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  under  the  old  plan 
to  be  responsible  in  part  for  this  miserable  condition. 

(3)  A  larger  number  and  better  class  of  students  in  the  high  schools  and  universities.  Both 
to-day  are  carrying  many  who  should  not  be  there,  for  they  lack  purpose  and  will  not  make 
adequate  returns  to  society  for  the  money  and  the  effort  expended  upon  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  countless  numbers  who  should  be  in  attendance  in  these  schools  and  are  not 

V  59 


because  of  digcouragements  due  to  courses  of  study  and  the  time  and  money  necessary  to  get 
what  they  desire. 

(4)  A  grouping  and  presentation  of  subjects  that  will  enable  us' to  do  for  the  intermediate 
pupil  what  the  high  school  to-day  is  doing  for  its  pupils. 

(5)  A  grouping  and  presentation  of  subjects  that  will  enable  our  14-year  high  schools  to 
produce  technically  trained  men  and  women  in  music,  art,  commerce,  industry,  agriculture, 
and  home  economics. 

(6)  Allowing  the  university  to  occupy  its  legitimate  field  and  do  real  university  work. 

I  thoroughly  believe  that  the  reorganization  of  the  school  system  along  these  lines  is  the 
largest  and  most  significant  educational  movement  in  modern  times."  (46) 

An  excerpt  from  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  says: 

"The  Hall  school  of  child  study  has  made  clear  the  existence  of  at  least  two  significant 
periods  in  the  development  of  children — the  adolescent  and  the  preadolescent  periods.  Each 
of  these  is  shown  to  have  differentiating  and  distinguishing  characteristics,  both  physica  and 
mental.  •  In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was  shown  that  the  sbc-three-three  arrangement  of  grades 
is  one  which  recognizes  these  stages  of  child  development  and  that  it  is  an  arrangement  of  school 
machinery  making  it  easy  for  school  officials  to  plan  and  carry  their  work  into  effect  in  confolrmity 
to  the  differing  characteristics  of  these  periods.  In  the  selection  of  the  content  of  a  course  of 
study  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  detail  in  an  orderly  and  progressive  whole,  due  regard  must 
be  paid  to  the  matter  of  stages  in  child  growth. 

Again,  concerning  the  high-school  course,  the  committee  recommend  a  six-year  course, 
beginning  with  the  seventh  year,  on  the  grounds  that  the  seventh  grade,  rather  than  the  ninth, 
is  the  natural  turning  point  in  the  pupil's  life;  that  an  easier  transition  can  thereby  be  made 
from  the  one-teacher  regimen  to  the  system  of  special  teachers;  that  a  larger  percentage  of 
students  would,  through  this  arrangement,  be  retained  in  school;  and  that  the  final  result  would 
be  a  more  closely  articulated  system,  with  a  larger  percentage  of  graduates  from  the  high- 
school."  (46) 

The  reorganization  of  the  secondary  school  system  is  not  the  only  factor 
necessary  to  facilitate  the  proper  study  of  the  material  in  the  Course  of  English 
Study.  There  is  another  factor,  equally  important,  even  if  not  more  so,  and 
that  factor  is — the  teacher.  A  teacher  training  for  secondary  teaching  and 
one  training  for  elementary  teaching  should  make  a  specific  difference  in  the 
method  of  his  preparation  for  teaching.     Dean  Luckey  informs  us  that: 

"Education  has  been  defined  as  the  process  of  mental  development,  or  the  adjustment  of 
the  individual  to  his  environment.  But  a  more  complete  though  somewhat  awkward  definition 
is  the  following:  Education  is  the  process  of  the  reconstruction  and  utilization  of  experiences 
by  means  of  which  the  individual  is  brought  into  sympathetic  relations  with,  and  given  ever- 
increasing  control  of,  his  environment.  With  this  definition  before  us,  teaching  becomes  the 
intelligent  guidance  in  this  adaptation;  teaching  then  is,  in  the  truest  as  well  as  the  broadest 
sense,  character  building.  To  be  efficient  and  vital  the  teaching  must  be  adapted  at  all  points 
to  the  interests,  the  nature,  and  the  immediate  needs  of  the  child  who  is  to  be  influenced  by  it. 
The  pupil  must  feel  at  every  point  that  what  he  is  doing  is  worth  while.  In  order  to  put  into 
operation  such  teaching,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  specific  difference  in  the  methods  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  elementary  and  of  secondary  teachers. 

The  material  for  mental  development  naturally  covers  two  fields;  the  great  commercial  and 
industrial  subjects — ^the  objective  of  scientific  world;  the  great  literary  and  culture  subjects — the 
subjective  or  humanistic  world.  The  one  administers  most  to  man's  material  wants,  the  other, 
to  his  spiritual. 

In  early  school  life  the  child  is  more  interested  in  the  objective  world — nature,  things,  and 
natural  objects.  These  furnish  the  key  by  means  of  which  he  becomes  familiar  with  the  symbols 
and  forms  (tools)  of  thought. 

In  secondary  education  he  is  better  prepared  for,  if  not  more  interested  in,  the  humanistic 
world — history,  language,  literature,  and  begins  to  lay  the  foundation  for  broad  culture  and 
scientific  research. 


(46)  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  pp.  86-87,  117. 

60 


In  the  higher  education  he  naturally  limits  the  field  of  his  activity,  selecting  qne  or  more 
subjects  from  either  the  scientific  or  humanistic  field.  He  brings  to  bear  upon  them  the  search 
light  of  his  experiences,  and  makes  them  the  foundations  for  further  investigations  and  philosoph- 
ical thought,  the  relating  and  unifying  of  all  experiences. 

The  mental  development  of  the  individual  covers  three  important  periods;  the  early  formative 
period,  extending  from  birth  to  puberty;  the  period  of  orientation  or  mental  adjustment,  extend- 
ing from  the  beginning  of  puberty  to  probably  18;  the  period  of  manhood,  specialization,  and 
professional  life. 

The  first  period  is  covered  by  elementary,  foundation  studies;  formative  disciplinary  work; 
general  information  concretely  represented.  The  second  is  covered  by  the  high  school  studies; 
less  of  form  more  of  content;  a  period  of  relating  adjusting  and  classifying  knowledge;  a  period 
of  orientation  and  transition  from  that  of  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  through  instruction  to 
that  of  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  through  original  research  and  investigation.  The  third 
period  is  covered  by  the  last  years  of  the  college,  and  the  special  professional  schools.  It  is  the 
work  of  specializing  for  a  vocation. 

The  instructional  method,  which  is  best  adapted  to  the  education  of  children,  and  the 
laboratory  method,  or  method  of  scientific  research,  more  suitable  for  the  work  of  advanced 
students,  have  but  little  in  common.  They  represent  the  two  extremes  in  the  methods  of  teaching. 
The  high  school,  representing  the  transition  period,  possesses  some  features  belonging  to  each. 

In  the  elementary  school  all  subjects  yield  to  the  instructional  method,  i.  e.,  the  method 
through  which  the  teacher  brings  together,  in  an  orderly  and  systematic  arrangement,  all  the 
essential  material  on  the  subject  in  the  form  most  easy  of  acquisition  by  the  learner.  In  the  high 
school  some  of  the  subjects  are  formative,  or  disciplinary,  and  require  the  instructional  method, 
while  other  subjects  are  more  a  matter  of  content,  mental  adjustment,  individual  effort  and 
discovery,  and  yield  more  readily  to  the  laboratory  or  scientific  method,  a  method  in  which  the 
student  is  placed  under  greater  responsibility  and  given  greater  freedom  for  independent  action. 

The  secondary  teacher,  therefore,  must  be  a  master  of  both  methods.  He  must  be  skilled 
in  imparting  knowledge  when  dealing  with  those  subjects,  or  parts  of  subjects,  in  which  the  student 
must  become  familiar.  But  he  must  also  be  a  student,  master  of  the  tools  and  the  method  of 
research,  and  capable  of  interesting  and  intelligently  guiding  his  students  in  independent  action 
and  original  investigations."  (22) 

In  order  that  the  work  in  English,  in  the  Secondary  Schools,  may  cultivate 
accuracy,  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  in  language,  secure  an 
enlargement  and  an  enrichment  of  the  type-forces,  or  ideals  of  life,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  emphasis  be  placed  upon  three  distinct  phases  of  English  instruction: 
(1)  Constructive  English,  (2)  Technical  English,  (3)  Literature.  If,  however, 
we  consider  English  on  the  basis  of  a  two-fold  classification  we  shall  then 
have:  (1)  Composition,  (2)  Literature.  We  shall,  however,  consider  the 
application  of  Technical  English  or  Technical  Grammar  as  necessary  to  both 
of  these  divisions. 

The  definite  aim  in  teaching  Constructive  English,  or  Composition  work, 
is  to  enable  the  pupil  to  speak  and  write  in  simple,  clear,  forceful  and  correct 
English.  To  these  aims  should  be  added  the  development  of  individuality 
in  speech,  that  is,  of  style. 

The  work  is  of  two  kinds,  oral  and  written.  Oral  composition  means 
much  more  than  merely  the  expressions  used  in  common,  ordinary  every  day 
life— it  includes  much  longer  and  more  connected  speech,  such  as  incidents, 
topics  from  history,  geography,  science,  character  sketches,  reproduction  of 
stories,  in  fact  any  thing  that  demands  attention  to  form  and  substance,  or 
meaning.  Effective  teaching  also  demands  criticism  of  any  thing  which  aids 
in  the  oral  delivery  of  thought,  such  as  proper  pronunciation  of  words,  posture 


(22)  Luckey,  pp.  233-236. 

61 


and  the  ability  to  stand  before  a  class  and  command  attention.  An  applica- 
tion of  Technical  English  may  be  made  here  very  successfully  by  calling 
attention  to  compound  sentences,  connectives,  or  whatever  is  essential  to 
good  work  at  this  period.  In  order  that  the  teaching  in  Constructive  English, 
or  Composition  work  may  be  effective,  form  and  substance  must  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

As  to  Technical  English,  or  Technical  Grammar,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  review  of  grammatical  principles  and  to  improve  an  opportunity  for  further 
systematic  progress  in  the  study  of  English.  It  should  be  largely  taught  as 
applied  English.  Technical  English  is  necessary  as  a  time-saving  educational 
device,  as  an  element  to  strengthen  Constructive  English,  or  Composition 
Work  and  as  a  helpful  agency  in  the  interpretation  of  literature.  Concrete 
examples  should  be  given  to  illustrate  the  value  of  this  division  of  English. 
Mr.  Charles  Swain  Thomas  has  made  the  point  clear  by  his  illustration  from 
Bryant's   To  A  Waterfowl: 

There  is  a  Power  whose  care 

Teaches  thy  way  along  the  pathless  coast, — 

The  desert  and  illimitable  air, — 

Lone  wandering,  but  not,  lost. 

He  says:  "The  pupil  on  first  thought  may  regard  desert  as  a  noun.  But 
by  careful  questioning  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  pupil  will  be  led  to  see 
that  desert — here  almost  synonymous  with  empty— is  an  adjective  modifying 
air.  And  with  this  grammatical  conception  established,  there  will  come  to 
the  pupil  an  enlarged  sense  of  the  beauty  of  the  poet's  vision."  The  main 
end  to  be  sought  for  is:  (1)  The  securing  of  a  sense  of  accuracy  in  expression; 
(2)  The  development  of  a  response  to  vitalized  literature. 

As  to  the  third  division  of  English  which  is  Literature,  the  primary  aim  is 
to  develop  appreciation.  In  developing  appreciation  of  the  selection  as  a 
whole,  the  sentiment  and  other  meanings  are  the  essential  things.  As  a 
means  of  developing  this  subjective  reaction,  or  appreciation,  special  attention 
must  be  given  to  meanings  of  words,  phrases,  figures,  sensory  activities,  or 
sense  appeals,  and  characterization  through  observation  of  life  and  the  study 
of  literature.  Details  such  as  involve  further  analytic  work  are  necessary, 
but  they  must  be  wisely  subservient  to  the  desired  end — appreciation  of  litera- 
ture itself. 

The  literature  period,  which  allows  emphasis  to  fall  upon  line^  of  conduct, 
through  lessons  and  examples  in  integrity,  in  courtesy,  in  patriotism,  in  the 
performance  of  allotted  daily  tasks,  leads  to  the  development  of  a  worthy 
character. 

The  method  or  process  of  correlating  is:  (1)  To  develop  the  cultural 
activities,  or  sensibilities  of  the  vocationally  trained  pupil,  and  of  the  liberally 
trained  pupil;  (2)  to  increase  the  knowledge,  or  information  of  the  vocation- 
ally trained  pupil  and  of  the  liberally  trained  pupil;  (3)  to  develop,  primarily, 
the  capacity  of  the  vocationally  trained  pupil  to  earn  a  living,  and  to  become 
an  efficient  member  of  society. 

This  is  done  by  developing  the  informational,  or  knowledge  phase  of  the 
pupil's  life  by  means  of  Vocational  Literature  and  by  developing  the  Literary 

62 


consciousness  of  the  pupils  through  the  aesthetics  of  life  and  things;  by  study 
of  the  aesthetics  of  words,  of  the  aesthetics  of  phrases,  of  the  aesthetics  of 
figures,  of  the  sensory  activities,  or  sense  appeals  and  of  the  aesthetics  of 
character. 

Ernesto  Nelson,  Director  of  Secondary  Education,  Argentina,  says: 

"In  the  secondary  school  of  to-day,  therefore,  and,  to  a  certain  extent  even  in  the  primary 
school,  knoivledge-gettimj  is  still  the  prominent  activity,  throwing  into  the  shade  all  other  activities 
more  vitally  concerned  with  the  character-forming  end  of  education.  Information  is  what  may 
be  called  the  building  blocks  of  the  present  system  of  education.  Information  is  the  factor  that 
conditions  the  pupil's  progress  through  school  and  is  so  far  the  only  test  universally  accepted  as 
a  measure  of  the  amount  of  education  given  or  received.  The  curriculum,  the  textbook,  the 
examination  paper  are  the  most  important  pieces  of  the  educational  machinery,  and  this  costly 
and  formidable  machinery  is  not  concerned,  as  one  should  think  it  ought  to  be,  with  the  self- 
development  of  the  student  and  the  testing  of  the  real  progress  of  his  personality,  but  solely  with 
standardizing,  circulating,  and  testing  the  amount  of  information  a  person  has  to  receive  in  order 
to  be  worthy  of  the  privilege  of  being  educated  by  the  state,  *  *  * 

Nothing  is  further  from  the  purpose  of  this  paper  than  the  idea  that  knowledge  should  receive 
little  attention  in  the  field  of  education.  In  fact,  knowledge  could  not  possibly  be  separated 
from  the  process  of  education.  Wherever  there  is  self-activity,  knowledge  of  some  kind  is  sure  to 
come  as  a  result.  Just  as  heat  is  the  dynamic  equivalent  of  physical  energy,  so  knowledge  is  the 
intellectual  equivalent  of  a  useful  psychic  activity.  Science  is  mind  made,  and  has  also  made 
man's  mind.  Science  is  the  specific  subject  matter  to  which  the  mind  may  usefully  apply  itself. 
It  is  the  food  on  which  the  mind  grows. 

But  if  there  can  be  no  education  without  knowledge  getting,  there  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  knowledge  getting  that  does  not  promote  a  corresponding  educational  activity. 

This  counterfeit  knowledge  is  the  kind  of  knowledge  resulting  from  undue  stress  on  the 
knowledge-getting  side  of  education.  *  *  * 

Up  to  the  present  the  school  authorities  have  been  busy  organizing  knowledge,  not  education. 
The  school  program  of  to-day  is  made  up  of  carefully  distributed  information  among  the  successive 
stages  of  school  work.  We  have  yet  to  devise  a  system  of  activities  of  really  educational  sig- 
nificance. The  laboratory  method  has  been  a  step  in  that  direction,  but  an  immense  amount  of 
such  organization,  to  make  it  consistent  throughout,  remains  to  be  done  in  all  departments  of 
learning.  *  *  * 

When  a  set  of  occupations  has  been  devised  that  will  train  the  spiritual  possibilities  stored 
ill  man,  we  shall  have  a  system  of  education  which  will  be  the  intellectual  and  ethical  counterpart 
to  the  many  systems  for  building  up  the  human  body.  Strangely  enough,  although  many  nations 
claim  to  possess  their  own  system  of  intellectual  education,  none  has  so  far  organized  a  system 
that  will  bring  out  the  latent  individual  powers  of  the  child,  the  adolescent,  and  the  youth,  with 
all  its  sequel  of  rightly  obtained  information."  (47) 

Charles  Eliott  informs  us  that: 

"The  difference  between  a  good  workman  and  a  poor  one  in  agriculture,  mining,  or  manu- 
facturing is  the  difference  between  the  man  who  possesses  well-trained  senses  and  good  judgment 
in  using  them  and  the  man  who  does  not. 

It  follows  from  these  considerations  that  the  training  of  the  senses  should  always  have  a 
prime  object  in  human  education,  at  every  stage  from  primary  to  professional.  That  prime  object 
it  has  never  been,  and  is  not  to-day.  The  kind  of  education  the  modern  world  has  inherited  from 
ancient  times  was  based  chiefly  on  literature.  Its  principal  materials,  besides  some  elementary 
mathematics,  were  sacred  and  profane  writings,  both  prose  and  poetry,  including  descriptive 
narration,  history,  philosophy,  and  relig^ion;  but  accompanying  this  tradition  of  language  and 
literature  was  another  highly  useful  transmission  from  ancient  times — the  study  of  the  fine  arts, 
with  the  many  kinds  of  skill  that  are  indispensible  to  artistic  creation.  *  *  * 


(47)  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  pp.  23-26. 

6? 


It  must  not  be  imagined  that  any  advocate  of  more  sense  training  in  education  expects  to 
diminish  the  exercise  of  the  reasoning  powers  or  of  the  motive  powers  which  distinguish  man 
from  the  other  animals,  or  to  impair  man's  faith  in  the  spiritual  unity  of  the  world,  or  his  sense 
of  duty  toward  fellowmen,  or  his  sympathies  with  them.  The  devotees  of  natural  and  physical 
science  during  the  last  150  years  have  not  shown  themselves  inferior  to  any  other  class  of  men 
in  their  power  to  reason  and  to  will,  and  have  shown  themselves  superior  to  any  class  of  men  in 
the  value  of  worth  to  society  of  the  product  of  those  powers.  The  men  who  have  done  most  for 
the  human  race  since  the  nineteenth  century  began,  through  the  right  use  of  their  reason,  imagina- 
tion, and  will,  are  the  men  of  science,  the  artists,  and  the  skilled  craftsmen,  not  the  metaphysicians, 
the  orators,  the  historians,  or  the  rulers.  In  modern  times  the  most  beneficent  of  the  rulers  have 
been  men  who  have  shared  in  some  degree  the  new  scientific  spirit,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
metaphysicians.  As  to  the  real  poets,  teachers  of  religion,  and  other  men  of  genius,  their  best 
work  has  the  scientific  quality  of  precision  and  truthfulness;  and  their  rhetorical  or  oratorical  wor'H 
is  only  second  best.  The  best  poetry  of  the  last  three  centuries  perfectly  illustrates  this  general 
truth.     Shakespeare  wrote: 

I  know  a  bank  whereon  the  wild  thyme  grows. 
The  florists  now  tell  us  that  thyme  will  not  thrive  except  on  a  bank.     George  Herbert  wrote: 

Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright; 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky, 
The  dew  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night. 
For  thou  must  die. 

Precision  of  statement  could  go  no  further;  thought  and  word  are  perfectly  accurate.     Emerson 
said  to  the  rhodora: 

The  selfsame  power  that  brought  me  here,  brought  you. 
A  more  accurate  description  of  the  universal  Providence  could  not  be  given.     Even  martial  poetry 
often  possesses  the  same  absolute  accuracy: 

Oh!  Tiber,  Father  Tiber, 
To  whom  the  Romans  pray, 
A  Roman's  life,  a  Roman's  arms. 
Take  thou  in  charge  this  day! 
Cannon  to  the  right  of  them. 
Cannon  to  the  left  of  them, 
Volleyed  and  thundered. 
Into  the  jaws  of  Death 
Rode  the  six  hundred. 
When  human  emotions  are  so  stirred,  and  human  wills  inspired,  it  is  the  accurate,  perfectly 
true  statement  which  moves  most,  and  lasts  longest: 

Greater  love  hath  no  man  than  this:  that  a  man  lay  down  his  life  for  his  friends. 
The  most  exact,  complete,  satisfying,  and  influential  description  of  true  neighborliness  in  all 
literature  is  the  parable  of  the'  Good  Samaritan: 

Which  of  these  three,  thinkest  thou,  proved  neighbor  unto  him  that  fell  among  the  robbers? 

And  he  said.  He  that  showed  mercy  on  him.     And  Jesus  said  unto  him,  Go  and  do  thou 

likewise. 

It  is  a  great  lesson  to  be  drawn  from  The  Great  War  that  under  the  passionate  excitemen  t 

and  tremendous  strain  of  the  wide  spread  disaster  the  medical  profession  and  the  nurses  of  all 

countries  are  holding  firmly  to  that  exact  definition  of  the  neighbor,  and  are  obeying  strictly  the 

command,  *D6  thou  likewise.'     These  are  men  and  women  who  have  received  thorough  training 

of  the  senses  without  suffering  any  loss  of  quick  sympathy  or  of  human  devotion. 

Rhetorical  exaggeration,  paradox,  hyperbole,  and  rhapsody  doubtless  have  their  use  in  moving 
to  immediate  action  masses  of  ordinary  men  and  women;  but  they  are  not  the  finest  weapons 
of  the  teacher  and  the  moralist: 

Speaks  for  itself  the  fact. 
As  unrelenting  Nature  leaves 
Her  every  act."  (47) 


(47)  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  pp.  6-14.     (Charles  W.  Eliot.) 

64 


.The  knowledge-getting  side  of  education  and  the  "spiritual  possibilities" 
stored  up  in  humanity  should  be  closely  correlated  in  literature.  The  essential 
principles  which  guide  us  in  the  instruction  in  English  Language  and  Literature 
are:  (1)  To  develop  the  sense  of  ability  to  speak,  read,  and  write  with  facility 
and  correctness;  (2)  to  develop  the  objective  and  the  subjective  meaning  of 
the  message. 

The  first  principle  has  to  do,  primarily,  with  Constructive  English  and 
with  Technical  English  while  the  second  principle  has  to  do  with  Literature. 

As  to  the  objective  meaning  of  the  message  of  the  selection  in  literature 
the  pupil  must  see  what  facts  the  writer  is  trying  to  impart  and  he  must 
translate  the  arbitrary  signs  which  we  call  words  into  concepts,  or  notions. 

Tolstoi  says  that,  practically,  the  aim  of  art  is  to  communicate  feeling 
from  one  soul  to  another.  This  transfer  of  feeling  is  construed  or  couched 
in  such  a  way  as  to  embody  his  emotions  so  as  to  arouse  in  others  the  same 
or  similar  feelings.  This  concrete  something  may  be  a  cathedral,  a  picture, 
or  a  poem,  etc.  The  feeling  kindled  by  a  landscape  may  be  imparted  by  means 
of  a  painting  or  as  shown  by  Ruskin  in  a  word-picture,  while  Millet  conveys 
the  same  feeling  by  means  of  a  picture,  "The  Man  With  the  Hoe".  To 
communicate  feelings  one  uses  details  and  suggestive  words. 

I.     Words. 

"All  the  words  in  our  language,  or  in  any  language,  are  either  Prose  Words,  that  is,  words 
which  denote  knowledge  mainly,  or  Emotional  Words,  that  is,  such  as  express  mainly  feeling. 
There  are  well-marked  divisions  of  the  Second  or  Emotional  class  of  words.  *  *  * 

All  objects  tend  either  to  enhance  the  forces  of  the  soul,  or  to  obstruct  and  waste  them. 
Hence  the  ideas  of  things,  so  tar  as  they  are  spiritually  discerned,  sustain  or  relax  the  tone  of 
consciousness;  they  raise  the  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  brain  or  depress  it."  (36) 

Literature  has  to  do,  primarily,  with  the  emotional  meanings  rather 
than  with  the  intellectual  or  logical  meanings.  We  may  then  say  that  we 
have  words  of  power,  or  words  that  inspire,  or  move  and  words  of  knowledge, 
or  words  that  inform. 

All  emotional  reactions  come  from  the  degree  to  which  the  type-forces, 
or  ideals,  or  inner  senses,  are  satisfied  with  the  type-qualities  involved. 

Intellectual  meanings  do  not  satisfy.  The  definitions  of  words,  as  given 
in  the  dictionary,  do  not  give  us  the  real  meaning.  The  International  Dic- 
tionary defines  the  word  "lily"  as  "an  endogenous  bulbous  plant  having  a 
regular  perianth  of  six  colored  pieces,  six  stamens,  and  a  superior  three-celled 
ovary".  This  is  not  the  real  meaning  of  "lily"  for  the  real  meaning  is  to  be 
identified  in  the  effect  "lily"  has  upon  the  sensibilities  or  ideals.  Such  a 
plan  for  the  study  of  words  has  been  outlined  by  Dean  L.  A.  Sherman  in  the 
Supplement  to  the  Nebraska  High  School  Manual,  1914.     He  says: 

"A  literary  sensitiveness  and  consciousness  must  be  developed.  The  sensibilities  can  be 
exercised  by  realizing  the  sentiment  connotation  of  ideas  and  words,  just  as  an  arithmetical  or  a 
musical  consciousness  can  be  built  up  by  practicing  combinations  of  numbers  or  of  tones.  The 
study  of  the  feeling  aspects  of  things,  begun  in  the  kindergarten,  must  not  be  left  to  chance,  but 
continued  in  the  grades.  Only  a  little  attention,  week  by  week,  is  necessary,  but  that  little  is 
imperative.     If  the  work  is  not  done  before  the  student  reaches  the  high  school,  it  should  be 


(36)  Sherman,  pp.  3-28. 

65 


administered  there.  A  few  systematic  exercises  in  bringing  home  to  the  pupils  the  aesthetic 
aspects  of  things,  through  the  analysis  of  words,  phrases  and  figures,  will  open  the  world  of  senti- 
ment and  poetry  to  neglected  and  backward  students,  and  supply,  in  a  working  measure,  this 
fundamental  need.  Surprising  quickness  of  imagination  has  been  developed,  by  these  means, 
in  unresponsive,  unpromising  pupils  of  foreign  birth.  The  study  of  characterization,  by  imag- 
inative appeals,  will  greatly  enlarge  the  significance  of  literature,  and  may  be  taught  along  with 
the  analysis  of  ideas  and  figures.  *  *  * 

The  sensibilities  of  literature  pupils  must  therefore  be  trained  intensively.  As  Professor 
Tolman  has  said,  in  the  sentences  quoted  from  his  Circular,  the  poetry  of  Shakespeare  must  be 
studied  at  first  hand.  Of  course  all  other  poetry  must  be  studied,  not  less  than  Shakespeare's, 
at  first  hand.  This  can  hardly  be  done  by  questions.  The  unit  is  too  small.  We  need  to  analyze 
sentences,  to  find  the  thought.  We  must  analyze  ideas  and  words,  to  find  the  sentiment  out  of 
which  poetry  is  constructed."  (25) 

(For  complete  treatment  of  analysis  of  words  see  Numbers  25  and  36  in 
Bibliography.) 

Some  Devices  for  Words. 
WORD-PICTURES. 

Word-pictures,  or  words  calling  up  different  pictures  in  different  pupil's 
minds  may  be  employed  quite  effectively  in  training  the  sensibilities.  These 
may  be  reproduced  in  a  drawing  or  painting  or  used  for  a  story.  The  sug- 
gestiveness  of  the  word  will  differ  according  to  the  individual  and  his  environ- 
ment. Some  suggestive  words  that  may  call  up  a  picture  in  the  pupil's 
mind  from  which  he  may  tell  a  story  are: 

bridge.  pine. 

clouds.  snow. 

hills.  tree. 

mountain.  waterfall. 

palm.  winter. 
Then  there  are: 
Pictorial  Word-Signs  which  may  symbolize  or  suggest  certain  qualities  as: 

dove peace. 

eagle power. 

fox cunning. 

lion courage. 

wolf greediness. 

In  the  Vocational  work  especially,  Trade-Marks  and  Trade  Names  may 
be  found  very  interesting  and  suggestive.  The  Trade-Mark  is  said  to  be, 
and  really  is  a  Business  Asset,  as  is  shown  by  the  following: 

"It  is  said,  on  good  authority,  that  the  Royal  Baking  Powder  Company  considers  its  trade- 
mark worth  just  $1,600,000  a  letter.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  most  valuable  trade-mark  in  existence, 
though  it  is  rivaled  in  value  by  'Kodak',  'Uneeda',  'Ivory'  (as  applied  to  soap),  'Coca-Cola', 
the  name  'Gillette'  used  in  connection  with  safety  razors,  and  a  half  dozen  others.  Each  of 
these  trade-marks  has  become  a  national  institution.  To  displace  them  in  the  mind  would  require 
competition  of  unheard-of  magnitude  and  energy. 

The  name  'Coca-Cola'  is  worth  at  least  five  million  dollars;  *  *  * 


(25)  Nebraska  High  School  Manual.     Supplement  in  English,  pp.  24-26. 

66 


SNOW 


Selling  by  trade-mark  is  one  of  the  miracles  of  modem  merchandising.  Its  development  to 
a  state  of  high  efficiency  has  taken  place  during  the  last  hundred  years.  *  *  *  'Wanamaker's'  is  a 
trade-name  and  'Kodak'  is  a  trade-mark.  *  *  *  No  matter  how  distinctive  or  attractive  a  mark 
may  be,  it  is  worth  but  little  if  it  is  used  in  connection  with  an  inferior  article  or  with  an  article 
sold  without  profit. 

But  a  distinctive  and  suggestive  trade-mark  is  of  immense  help  in  advertising  and  selling. 
Consider,  for  example,  the  trade-mark  of  Old  Dutch  Cleanser.  It  is  full  of  human  interest,  motion, 
life,  and  suggestion.  It  brings  up  in  the  mind  the  mental  picture  of  dirt  fleeing  from  an  energetic 
Dutch  scouring  woman.  That  this  mark  has  been  a  powerful  aid  to  sales  is  obvious.  Suppose 
Old  Dutch  Cleanser  had  been  called  Climax  Cleaning  Powder.  Can  you  imagine  anybody 
acquiring  more  than  the  most  languid  interest  in  anything  with  a  name  so  dull?  It  reminds  one 
of  hard  and  sordid  toil. 

Many  portraits  of  living  persons  are  used  as  trade-marks — notable  among  them  being  the 
face  of  W.  L.  Douglas,  shoe  manufacturer;  and  the  portrait  of  Thomas  A.  Edison.  *  *  * 

Among  historical  characters  the  picture  and  signature  of  Robert  Burns,  the  poet,  are  com- 
bined in  a  trade-mark  for  cigars;  the  face  of  Benjamin  Franklin  is  used  as  a  trade-mark  for  the 
Saturday  Evening  Post,  and  will  be  found  printed  on  the  editorial  page  of  each  issue;  Bismarck 
is  the  name  for  collars;  Napoleon  is  used  in  connection  with  a  brand  of  flour  and  "Bob"  IngersoU 
is  the  trade-mark  of  a  cigar."  (24) 

Some  selections  from  Literature  in  which  Words  may  be  classified: 

1.  From  Matthew  Arnold:   Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

*  *  *  "But  she 
Lies  dying,  with  the  arrow  in  her  side 
In  some  far  stony  gorge  out  of  his  ken, 
A  heap  of  fluttering  feathers — never  more 
Shall  the  lake  glass  her,  flying  over  it; 
Never  the  black  and  dripping  precipices 
Echo  her  stormy  scream  as  she  sails  by: 

2.  From  Keats:   St.  Agnes  Eve. 

"St.  Agnes — Ah,  bitter  chill  it  was! 
The  owl,  for  all  his  feathers,  was  a-cold; 
The  hare  lirap'd  trembling  through  the  frozen  grass, 
And  silent  was  the  flock  in  woolly  fold: 
Numb  were  the  Beadsman's  fingers,  while  he  told 
His  rosary,  and  while  his  frosted  breath, 
Like  pious  incense  from  a  censer  old, 
Seem'd  taking  flight  for  heaven,  without  a  death, 
Past  the  sweet  Virgin's  picture,  while  his  prayer  he  saith.  ' 

3.  P'rom  Tennyson:   Lancelot  and  Elaine. 

"Elaine  the  fair,  Elaine  the  lovable, 
Elaine,  the  lily  maid  of  Astolat, 
High  in  her  chamber  up  a  tower  to  the  east 
Guarded  the  sacred  shield  of  Lancelot; 
Which  first  she  placed  where  morning's  earliest  ray 
Might  strike  it,  and  awake  her  with  the  gleam; 
Then  fearing  rust  or  soilure  fashion'd  for  it 
A  case  of  silk,  and  braided  thereupon 
All  the  devices  blazon'd  on  the  shield 
In  their  own  tinct,  and  added,  of  her  wit, 
A  border  fantasy  of  branch  and  flower, 
And  yellow-throated  nestling  in  the  nest." 


(24)  Munn  &  Co.,  pp.  1-2-6-23. 

67 


Some  Excerpts  on  Words. 

1.  From  Longinus: 

CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 
"That  a  choice  of  the  right  words  and  of  grand  words  wonderfully  attracts  and  charms 
hearers — that  this  stands  very  high  as  a  point  of  practice  with  all  orators  and  all  writers,  because, 
of  its  own  inherent  virtue,  it  brings  greatness,  beauty,  raciness,  weight,  strength,  mastery,  and  an 
exultation  all  its  own,  to  grace  our  words,  as  though  they  were  the  fairest  statues — that  it  imparts 
to  mere  facts  a  soul  which  has  speech — it  may  perhaps  be  superfluous  to  set  at  length,  for  my 
readers  know  it.     For  beautiful  words  are,  in  a  real  and  special  sense,  the  line  of  thought."  (21) 

2.  From  Spencer: 

CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 

"How  truly  language  must  be  regarded  as  a  hindrance  to  thought,  though  the  necessary 
instrument  of  it,  we  shall  clearly  perceive  on  remembering  the  comparative  force  with  which 
simple  ideas  are  communicated  by  signs.  To  say  'Leave  the  room',  is  less  expressive  than  to 
point  to  the  door.  Placing  the  lingers  on  the  lips  is  more  forcible  than  whispering,  'Do  not  speak '. 
A  beck  of  the  hand  is  better  than,  'Come  here'.  No  phrase  can  convey  the  idea  of  surprise  so 
vividly  as  opening  the  eyes  and  raising  the  eyebrows.  A  shrug  of  the  shoulders  would  fose  much 
by  translating  into  words.  Again,  it  may  be  remarked  that  when  oral  anguage  is  employed, 
the  strongest  effects  are  produce^  by  interjections,  which  condense  entire  sentences  into  syllables. 
And  in  other  cases,  where  custom  allows  us  to  express  thoughts  by  words,  as  in  Beware,  Heigho, 
Fudge,  much  force  would  be  lost  by  expanding  them  into  specific  propositions.  Hence,  carrying 
out  the  metaphor  that  language  is  the  vehicle  of  thought,  there  seems  reason  to  think  that  in  all 
cases  the  friction  and  inertia  of  the  vehicle  deduct  from  its  efficiency;  and  that  in  composition, 
the  chief,  if  not  the  sole  thing  to  be  done,  is,  to  reduce  the  friction  and  inertia  to  .the  smallest 
amount  possible.  Let  us  then  inquire  whether  economy  of  the  recipient's  attention  is  not  the 
secret  of  effect,  alike  in  the  right  choice  and  collocation  of  words,  in  the  best  arrangement  of  clauses 
in  a  sentence,  in  the  proper  order  of  its  principal  and  subordinate  propositions,  in  the  judicious 
use  of  simile,  metaphor,  and  other  figures  of  speech,  and  even  in  the  rythmical  sequence  of 
syllables. 

The  greater  forciblenesS  of  Saxon  English,  or  rather  non-Latin  English,  first  claims  our 
attention.  The  several  special  reasons  assignable  for  this  may  all  be  reduced  to  the  general 
reason — economy.  The  most  important  of  them  is  early  association.  A  child's  vocabulary  is 
almost  wholly  Saxon.  He  says,  I  have,  not  I  possess — I  wish,  not  I  desire.  He  does  not  reflect, 
he  thinks;  he  does  not  beg  for  amusement,  but  for  play;  he  calls  things  nice  or  nasty,  not  pleasant 
or  disagreeable.  The  synonyms  which  he  learns  in  after  years,  never  become  so  closely,  so  organ- 
ically connected  with  the  ideas  signified,  as  do  these  original  words  used  in  childhood;  hence 
the  association  remains  less  strong.  But  in  what  does  a  strong  association  between  a  word  and 
an  idea  differ  from  a  weak  one?  Simply  in  the  greater  ease  and  rapidity  of  the  suggestive  action. 
It  can  be  nothing  else.  Both  of  two  words,  if  they  be  strictly  synonymous,  eventually  call  up 
the  same  image.  The  expression — it  is  acid,  must  in  the  end  give  rise  to  the  same  thought  as — it 
is  sour;  but  because  the  term  acid  was  learnt  later  in  life,  and  has  not  been  so  often  followed 
by  the  thought  symbolized,  it  does  not  so  readily  arouse  the  thought  as  the  term  sour.  If  we 
remember  how  slowly  and  with  what  labour  the  appropriate  ideas  follow  unfamiliar  words  in 
another  language,  and  how  increasing  familiarity  with  such  words  brings  greater  rapidity  and 
ease  of  comprehension;  and  if  we  consider  that  the  same  process  must  have  gone  on  with  the 
words  of  our  mother  tongue  from  childhood  upwards,  we  shall  clearly  see  that  the  earlier  learnt 
and  oftenest  used  words  will,  other  things  equal,  call  up  images  with  less  loss  of  time  and  energy 
than  their  later  learnt  synonyms.  *  *  * 

The  shortness  of  Saxon  words  becomes  a  reason  for  their  greater  force.  One  qualification, 
however,  must  not  be  overlooked.  A  word  which  in  itself  embodies  the  most  important  idea  to 
be  conveyed,  especially  when  that  idea  is  an  emotional  one,  may  often  with  advantage  be  a  poly- 
syllabic word.  Thus  it  seems  more  forcible  to  say,  'It  is  magnificent',  than  'It  is  grand'.  The 
word  vast  is  not  so  powerful  a  one  as  stupendous.  Calling  a  thing  nasty  is  not  so  effective  as 
calling  it  disgusting.  *  *  * 


^21)  Longinus,  p.  55. 

68 


Once  more,  that  frequent  cause  of  strength  in  Saxon  and  other  primitive  words — their 
imitative  character,  may  be  similarly  resolved  into  the  more  general  cause.  Both  those  directly 
imitative,  as  splash,  bang,  whiz,  roar,  etc.,  and  those  analogically  imitative,  as  rough,  smooth,  keen, 
blunt,  thin,  hard,  crag,  etc.,  have  a  greater  or  less  likeness  to  the  thing  symbolized;  and  by  making 
on  the  senses  impressions  allied  to  the  ideas  to  be  'railed  up,  they  save  part  of  the  effort  needed 
to  call  up  such  ideas,  and  leave  more  attention  for  the  ideas  themselves. 

The  economy  of  the  recipient's  mental  energy,  into  which  are  thus  resolvable  the  several 
causes  of  the  strength  of  Saxon  English,  may  equally  be  traced  in  the  superiority  of  specific  over 
generic  words."  (39) 

3.  From  University  Studies: 

ON  THE  COLOR-VOCABULARY  OF  CHILDREN. 

"The  very  interesting  investigations  and  discussions  on  the  development  of  the  color-sense 
in  man,  during  historical  times,  have  incidentally  shown  the  deficiency  of  ancient  languages  in 
words  for  simple  sensatio?is.  *  *  *  In  seeking  evidence  for  the  recent  evolution  of  the  sense  of  color, 
Gladstone,  Geiger,  and  others  have  shown  that  few  words  denoting  color  are  used  in  the  earliest 
literature  of  several  nations.  Furthermore,  most  of  the  color-words  found  denote  shades  of  red, 
orange,  or  yellow.  Violet  is  never  named,  blue  very  seldom,  and  green  much  less  frequently 
than  we  might  expect  from  its  occurrence  in  nature.  Quite  similar  results  have  been  obtained 
from  examples  of  the  vocabularies  of  modern  uncivilized  peoples.  Although  most  tribes  have 
names  for  the  principal  colors  of  the  spectrum,  the  terms  denoting  red  or  yellow  are  far  more 
numerous  and  much  more  definite  than  others. 

The  inference  from  these  facts  has  been  that  primitive  peoples  are  deficient,  not  merely  in 
words  for  color,  but  also  in  color-perception.  *  *  *  On  passing  from  material  objects  to  mental 
phenomena  it  will  be  observed  that  comparatively  few  simple  sensations  have  names.  In  this 
respect,  however,  the  modem  languages  are  far  superior  to  the  ancient.  Locke  noticed  and 
deemed  it  worth  while  to  record  this  peculiarity  of  language.^  He  furthermore  remarks  concerning 
the  indefinite  character  of  names  that  'men  generally  content  themselves  with  some  few  obvious 
qualities ',  and  adds  that  in  organized  bodies  it  is  usually  the  shape,  and  in  other  bodies  the  color , 
that  serves  as  a  distinguishing  mark."^ 

In  temperature,  'hot',  'warm',  'cold',  and  'cool'  are  the  chief  terms  used.  For  the  muscular 
sense  we  employ  'heavy',  'light',  and  'elastic'.  For  touch  there  exist  the  terms  'rough',  'smooth', 
'shiny',  'granular',  'hard',  'soft',  and  'sharp',  besides  many  words  taken  from  materials,  as 
'velvety',  'silky',  'gummy',  and  'furry'.  'Sour',  'bitter',  and  'sweet'  are  the  most  important 
designations  of  taste.  Comparison  with  the  taste  of  better  known  substances  is  the  chief  expedient 
adopted  to  increase  the  definiteness  of  these  descriptions.  Odors  are  described  in  terms  quite 
analogous  to  those  employed  for  tastes.     Sounds  are  'high',  'loud',  'low',  'shrill',  'deep'. 

It  will  have  been  noted  that  the  words  for  sensations  given  above  are,  without  exception, 
adjectives.  Nearly  all  the  corresponding  abstract  nouns  are  used;  but  very  few  concrete  nouns 
for  these  sensations  exist.  In  sound,  however,  we  have  such  concrete  words  as  'time',  'noise', 
'roar',  and  'splash',  besides  many  participial  nouns,  as  'rumbling',  and  'singing'.  *  *  *  The  sense 
of  sight,  perhaps,  has  developed  a  larger  vocabulary  than  any  other  sense.  Its  words,  too  have 
advanced  farthest  on  the  way  from  adjectives  to  substantives.  *  *  *  It  may  be  confidently  stated, 
I  think,  that  an  educated  person  possesses  a  color-vocabulary  of  at  least  twenty-five  terms. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  practice  of  naming  sensations  or  objects  tends  to  increase 
the  power  of  discrimination."  (50) 

4.  From  Harper's  Weekly: 

THE  VALUE  OF  WORDS. 
*  *  *  "Still  words  are  like  people.     They  have  other  qualities  than  precision  and  authenticity. 
They  have  glamour  and  color  and  texture  and  quality;  they  have  associational  value  and  breeding 
environment.  *  *  * 


(39)  Spencer,  pp.  169-173. 

'Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding,  Bk^  II,  Chap.  3,  No.  2. 

ilbid,  Bk.  Ill,  Chap.  6,  No.  29. 

(50)  Wolfe,  pp.  205-234. 


69 


But  what  the  readers  of  to-day  will  not  bear  with  is  having  his  attention  strained  or  held 
long  at  any  given  point.  Meredith,  Browning,  Swineburne,  James,  Pater,  and  Hearne  sacrificed 
readers  because  of  their  devotion  to  words,  and  because  they  would  write  words  faithful  to  the 
coloring  of  their  own  spirit.  *  *  * 

Perhaps  Mr.  Henry  James  somewhat  overdoes  the  slow  method  when  he  announces  a  death 
by  saying,  'the  extremity  of  personal  absence  had  indeed  just  overcome  him',  but  at  least  the 
phrase  has  individuality;  and  Shakespeare  conveyed  the  same  idea  by  speaking  of  shuffling  off 
this  mortal  coil,  and  the  Bible,  by  yielding  up  the  ghost.  None  of  these  phrases  put  haste  before 
beauty. 

*  *  *  We  look  to  France  for  literary  culture  above  all  other  countries,  and  yet  M.  Henri 
Bergson  said  of  Maeterlinck  that  he  was  little  read,  and  understood  only  by  the  more  highly 
educated  circles.  So  words,  as  things  in  themselves,  must  be  the  luxury  of  the  few;  of  those  who 
still  read  poetry  and  old  essays  and  the  mediaeval  mystics.  It  is  the  poets  indeed  who  have  deserved 
most  nobly  of  words;  who  have  chiefly  endowed  them  with  color  and  personality  and  associational 
value. 

'It  is  really  odd',  said  a  young  girl,  the  other  day,  walking  through  an  old-fashioned  garden, 
•how  the  flowers  are  mixed  up  with  the  poets  that  you  can  not  think  of  them  separately.  Who 
could  see  vine  leaves  and  not  think  of  Hedda,  or  lilacs  without  remembering  Keats.  If  it  is  a  bed 
of  pansies  you  look  at,  you  see  Ophelia,  face  downward  in  the  marsh  in  which  Millais  drowned  her. 
The  geranium  always  brings  back  the  glass  of  water  by  Eveline's  bedside.  I  never  saw  basil 
growing,  but  if  one  did  and  called  it  the  basil  plant  one  would  think  of  Keats;  but  if  one  called 
it  'sweet  basil'  one  thinks  of  Shelley's  unknown  Madonna'. 

It  was  quite  true,  only  the  thought  might  be  carried  farther.  For  who  looks  at  a  growling, 
angry,  northern  sea  thinks  of  Shelley;  and  if  you  see  from  a  height  a  far-off  wrinkled  sea  you 
remember  Tennyson;  and  if  you  swim  in  the  ocean  you  recite  Swineburne.  If  you  see  scenery 
that  reminds  you  of  a  garish  postal-card,  with  a  castle  and  water-fall  and  moonlight,  you  are 
back  again  with  Tennyson  and 

'The  long  light  shakes  * 

Across  the  lakes 
And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory.' 

When  you  see  btiildings  mirrored  in  water  you  are  with  Shelley  again,  as  you  are  when- 
ever you  see  tiny  shallops  in  flowing  water,  and  the  big  sea  liners  and  coastwise  steamers  speak 
loudly  of  Kipling. 

The  heavens  and  the  stars  and  the  whole  shifting  scenery  of  the  sky,  clouds  and  moon  and 
dropping  sun,  belong  largely  to  Marlowe,  Shakespeare,  and  Shelley;  and  skylarks  and  nightingales 
belong  to  Shelley  and  Matthew  Arnold  and  George  Meredith.  *  *  *  Who  would  say  'daedal'  or 
'hoary'  and  not  remember  Shelley;  or  subtle  and  sanguine  and  fleet  without  being  consciously 
Swinebumian? 

The  words  of  the  street  may  grow  and  change  in  form  and  content  and  lead  the  masses 
hither  and  yon;  but  doubtless  there  will  always,  too,  be  quiet  shelters  where  thoughtful  men  will 
read  their  poets  and  learn  to  love  strange  words  and  beautiful,  and  find  them  valuable  just  for 
themselves."  (18) 

5.    From  "The  Nation": 

THE  WAY  OF  WORDS. 
"The  fact  is  that  words,  the  most  important  medium  of  exchange,  are  passing  into  the 
hands  of  the  favored  few.  *  *  *  The  history  of  words  and  their  combat  with  ideas  can  be  made 
absorbing.  It  is  not  a  return  to  the  quixotic  methods  of  Max  Muller  that  is  desirable.  Lincoln 
acquired  the  instinct  for  words  more  simply  by  studying  the  Bible  and  a  few  other  great  books. 
Once  let  me  get  the  sense  of  words  in  typical  operation,  as  so  often  happens  there,  with  their 
economy  of  effort  in  catching  and  crystallizing  elusive  meanings,  and  we  will  not  willingly  lose  it. 
It  is  not  for  us  here  to  suggest  a  more  practicable  means  than  Lincoln's;  and  yet  we  hope,  too, 
that  when  the  Oxford  Dictionary  is  completed  Sir  James  Murray,  or  some  one  with  his  enthusiasm, 
will,  either  by  book  or  by  lectures,  place  the  results  of  that  great  work  rather  more  vitally  before 
the  popular  imagination  than  can  its  mere  totality."  (42) 


(18)  Harper's  Weekly,  p.  5. 
(42)  The  Nation,  p.  543. 


70 


6.    From  Talks  on  Teaching  Literature: 

"The  teacher  of  literature  in  the  secondary  schools,  then,  is  to  consider  that  although  his 
work  is  primarily  done  as  a  part  of  the  school  requirement,  he  need  not  be  without  some  clear 
and  deliberate  intention  in  regard  to  the  permanent  efifect  upon  the  education  and  so  upon  the 
character  of  the  pupil.  He  may  treat  the  getting  of  his  charges  through  the  examinations  as  a 
purely  secondary  matter;  a  matter,  moreover,  which  is  practically  sure  to  be  accomplished  if  the 
greater  and  better  purposes  of  the  study  have  been  secured.  Besides  a  general  knowledge  of 
literary  history,  the  student  should  gain  from  his  training  in  the  secondary  school  a  vivid  sense 
of  the  importance  and  value  of  words;  an  appreciation  of  word-values  as  shown  in  actual  use 
by  the  masters;  should  increase  in  knowledge  of  life,  and  as  it  were  gain  experiences  vicariously, 
so  as  to  advance  in  perception  of  intellectual  and  moral  values;  should  be  advanced  in  the 
control  of  the  feelings;  in  enthusiasm;  and  in  the  development  of  that  noblest  of  faculties,  the 
imagination."  (3). 

II.     Literary  Phrases. 

"Not  all  the  poetic  delights  of  the  mind  are  enabled  or  occasioned  by  the  influence  of  words 
alone.  Many  are  complex  and  not  derivable  from  single  ideas  or  things.  A  common  attribute 
joined  to  a  common  object  in  a  new  relation  does  not  necessarily  yield  a  product  as  tame  as  either 
but  may  amount  to  a  revelation  of  beauty."  (36) 

We  have  seen  that  words  owe  all  their  aesthetic  or  emotional  power  to 
the  type-forces  or  ideals  they  stand  for.  The  phrase  is  the  simplest  combina- 
tion of  type-qualities  and  is  composed  of  a  noun  (or  other  words)  as  base 
(modified  term)  and  a  modifying  element  (modifier).  When  the  type-qualities 
of  the  modified  term  have  new  qualities  added  by  the  modifier,  or  when  the 
old  qualities  are  added  to  or  changed  in  any  way  by  the  type-elements  in  the 
modifier,  we  then  have,  properly,  the  literary  phrase.  The  modifier  may  be 
a  word,  or  it  may  be  a  prepositional  phrase,  or  it  may  be  a  participial  phrase — 
examples,  wise  men;  men  of  wisdom,  men  possessing  wisdom.  In  the  type- 
elements  in  the  experience  of  life  we  need  not  only  a  single  word  but  such 
elements  in  a  combination  of  words  in  order  to  help  us  the  better  to  express 
ourselves.  There  is  need  then  of  phrases  and  also  of  their  scientific  meaning. 
Literary  phrases  are  of  five  classes:  Prose;  epithetic;  figurative;  emotional 
and  poetic.  (For  a  complete  treatment  of  phrases  see  number  36  in  Bib- 
liography.) 

One  way  of  using  these  phrases  is  to  select  and  classify  them  as  given  in 
literature.     The  following  are  excellent  examples  for  use  in  classification. 

Literary  Phrases  from  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal": 

musing  organist     ....  chilly  wall, 

loved  instrument    ....  a  charger. 

our  infancy the  maiden  knight. 

great  winds unscarred  mail. 

faint  hearts young  knight's  heart. 

Druid  wood chill  winds. 

drowsy  blood pastures  bare. 

inspiring  sea winter-proof. 

lavish  summer tinkling  waters. 


(3)  Bates,  p.  27. 
(36)  Sherman,  p.  52. 


71 


poorest  comer steel-stemmed  trees. 

day  in  June winter  palace  of  ice. 

meadows  green       ....  fairy  masonry. 

high-tide elfin  builders  of  the  frost. 

unscarred  heaven  .     .     .     .  •  chimney-wide, 

season's  youth  .....  imprisoned  sap. 

burnt-out  craters   ....  Christmas  carol. 

Holy  Grail great  hall-fire. 

the  rushes forest's  tangled  darks. 

one  day  of  June     ....  icy  strings, 

outpost  of  winter  ....  ruddy  light. 

Literary  phrases  may  be  used  also  as  Subject  of  Themes.  A  phrase  may 
suggest:  (1)  An  oral  story;  (2)  A  written  one  as  in  the  case  of  the  following 
which  was  written  by  a  seventh  grade  girl: 

THE  KNIGHT. 

"When  I  think  of  a  knight,  I  think  of  a  tall,  broad  shouldered,  young  man  just  ready  to 
start  out  on  an  errand  of  mercy. 

He  is  clothed  in  armor  from  head  to  foot.  In  his  hand  he  carries  a  spear  and  on  his  arm 
a  shield.  His  pure,  handsome,  cleanly  cut  face  looks  out  from  'neath  a  helmet  which  sets  far 
over  his  massive  forehead.  His  whole  appearance  suggests  strength  and  skill  and  grace.  He  is 
seated  on  a  large,  snow-white  charger,  also  clothed  in  steel. 

Then  I  see  him  later  in  life.  He  is  riding  through  the  forest  perfectly  fearless  and  soon  he 
approaches  a  village  which  he  enters  and  perhaps  therfe  he  performs  many  good  missions  and 
kills  or  captures  some  cruel  tyrant.  Then  he  goes  back  to  great  glory  with  his  king  and  other 
knights  who  were  perhaps  brought  up  with  him". 

Some  selections  from  Literature  in  which  phrases  may  be  selected  and 
classified. 

1.  From  Keats:   Endymion,  Book  IV. 

"There  is  a  sleepy  dusk,  an  odorous  shade 
'      From  some  approaching  wonder,  and  behold 
Those  winged  steeds,  with  snorting  nostrils  bold 
Snuff  at  its  faint  extreme,  and  seem  to  tire. 
Dying  to  embers  from  their  native  fire." 

2.  From  Shakespeare:   Hamlet. 

"Hamlet.     Seems,  madam!  nay,  it  is; 

I  know  not  'seems', 
*Tis  not  alone  my  inky  cloak,  good  mother. 
Nor  customary  suits  of  solemn  black. 
Nor  windy  suspiration  of  forc'd  breath. 
No,  nor  the  fruitful  river  in  the  eye. 
Nor  the  dejected  haviour  of  the  visage. 
Together  with  all  forms,  moods,  shows  of  grief, 
That'^'can  denote  me  truly;  these  indeed  seem, 
For  they  are  actions  that  a  man  might  play: 
But  I  have  that  within  which  passeth  show; 
These  but  the  trappings  and  the  suits  of  woe." 

3.  From  Shelley:   Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of  Solitude. 

"Obedient  to  the  light 
That  shone  within  his  soul,  he  went,  pursuing 
The  windings  of  the  dell. — The  rivulet 

72 


THE  KNIGHT 


Wanton  and  wild,  through  many  a  green  ravine 

Beneath  the  forest  flowed.     Sometimes  it  fell 

Among  the  moss  with  hollow  harmony 

Dark  and  profound.     Now  on  the  polished  stones 

It  danced,  like  childhood  laaghing  as  it  went: 

Then  through  the  plain  in  tranquil  wanderings  crept, 

Reflecting  every  herb  and  drooping  bud 

That  overhung  its  quietness." 

III.  Figures. 

"Because  of  the  limitations  of  the  mind  in  devising  and  remembering 
names,  we  make  the  words  of  our  common  vocabulary  do  duty  for  many 
thousands  of  meanings  for  which  expression  could  not  be  otherwise  provided". 
(For  complete  treatment  of  figures  see  number  (36)  below.) 

IV.     Sensory  Activities — Sense  Appeals. 

Of  course  we  do  not  get  the  exact  image  that  the  writer  saw  unless  we 
know  certain  of  the  exact  details  that  constituted  it  in  his  mind,  in  this  our 
study  of  sensory  imagery,  as  applied  to  the  interpretation  of  Hterature.  But 
this  exact  image  is  not  necessary  as  the  pupil  can,  if  his  experience  be  sufficient, 
recreate  the  necessary  image  and  thus  be  in  sympathy  with  the  author. 

But  the  experiences  of  the  pupil  are  very  limited,  as  a  rule — he  has  not 
seen  enough.  The  experiences  of  the  city  pupil  often  differ  widely  from  those 
of  the  country  pupil  and  vice  versa.  The  spirit  of  his  generation  also  differs 
widely  from  that  to  which  his  grandmother  and  grandfather  belonged.  So 
we  should  help  the  pupil  understand  the  spirit  of  the  times  in  which  the  selec- 
tion was  written  and  also  try  to  broaden  his  cognitive  (perceptive)  powers 
by  pictures,  conversations,  lectures,  etc. 

Judd  says: 

"Good  pedagogy  should  call  into  activity  all  the  powers  of  the  mind  of  the  learner.  Thus 
in  the  case  of  the  language  teacher,  to  utilize  the  visual  and  the  graphic  centers  only,  and  allow 
the  auditory  and  the  motor  speech  centers  to  lie  barren,  is  to  get  only  a  portion  of  the  sensory 
impression  that  may  be  got  if  all  the  centers  are  utilized. 

Again,  since  some  individuals  of  a  group  will  learn  better  by  the  utilization  of  the  visual 
and  the  graphic  centers,  others  by  the  utilization  of  the  auditory  and  the  motor-speech  centers, 
etc.,  every  course  in  language  should  give  opportunity  for  both  forms  of  impression,  that  is,  for 
the  hearing,  and  seeing  (reading);  for  speaking  and  writing. 

Language  study  is  best  cultivated  by  utilizing  the  nervous  energy  of  all  four  centers,  that  is, 
the  ear,  the  eye,  the  vocal  organs  and  the  hand.  Each  must  support  the  other,  thus  heightening 
the  total  impression.  , 

Generalizations,  in  this  case  principles  and  laws,  must  bate  upon  sense  perceptions,  in  this 
case  spoken  or  written  words  and  phrases,  and  must  follow,  not  precede  them."  (20) 

Although  we  cannot  share  the  exact  experiences  we  can  enter  sympathet- 
ically into  the  pupil's  pictures  and  his  sensations.  My  point  is  that,  by 
instilling  into  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  necessity  of  a  wise  unselfishness,  the 
effacement  of  a  too  large  egoism,  and  a  willingness  to  become  liberally  minded, 
he  will  make  the  selection  vital  by  the  ability  to  recreate  the  sensory  image — the 
appeals  to  the  five  senses.     "  Captains  Courageous"  abounds  in  types  of  sound 


(36)  Sherman,  pp.  68-93;  60-86. 
(20)  Judd,  pp.  228-229. 


73 


and  motion.  One  can  hear,  see  and  smell,  the  sounds,  sights  and  odors 
respectively  of  the  sea.  The  type  idea  is  prevalent  throughout  Kipling. 
The  type  is  shown  in  the  following  italicized  words. 

Types  of  Form: 

*  *  *  while  behind  the  cod  three  or  four  graybacks  broke  the  water  into  boils. 

Types  of  Motion: 

He  passed  like  a  big  snake  from  the  table  to  his  bunk. 

Types  of  Color: 

The  sea  was  running  round  him  in  silver-colored  hills. 

Types  of  Smell: 

*  *  *  a  fine  full  flavor  of  cod-fish  hung  round  rubber  boots  and  blue  jerseys 
*  *  *  and  the  smell  of  the  earth  after  rain. 

Types  of  Sound: 

*  *  *  the  anchor  came  up  with  a  sob. 

To  visualize  is  to  image,  to  picture  for  the  eye,  if  taken  literally.  But  in 
its  broader  meaning  it  appeals  to  all  of  the  senses.  Appeals  to  the  sense  of 
hearing  are  often  more  powerful  than  appeals  to  the  sight  and  the  appeals 
to  the  touch  and  taste  while  considered  as  minor  appeals  are  sometimes  full 
of  power.  The  appeal  to  hearing  may  be  made  by  words  similar  in  sound 
to  the  sounds  they  describe  (onomatopoetic  words)  as  buzz  of  bees;  crackle  of 
fire;  sizzling  bacon  and  eggs;  cluck-cluck  of  the  chickens,  moo  of  the  cow, 
harsh  grunt  of  the  pigs,  and  the  brook  sang  and  bubbled  along.  Details  of 
color,  motion  and  actions  are  suggestive  to  sight. 

As  to  the  method  of  arousing  and  stimulating  these  sensory  activities  we 
may  use  the  following: 

1.  Sense  appeals — through  the  medium  of  the  five  senses. 

2.  Concrete  examples,  or 

3.  Questions  by  the  Teacher. 

After  the  concrete  example  is  read,  such  as  from  Tennyson:  Passing  of 
Arthur  (See  11.  361-393.  Contribution  III.)  The  Teacher  may  call  for 
(1)  picture,  (2)  omitted  details  from  members  of  the  class. 

Another  plan  which  may  be  followed  is:  The  teacher  may  ask  questions 
to  bring  out  certain  details  as  to  color,  sound,  touch,  significance  of  figures, 
epithets,  characters,  etc.  These  questions  emphasize  the  value  of  the  sensory 
imagery,  for  sensory  imagery  means  the  concrete  impressions — that  appeal 
to  the  senses — seeing,  hearing,  feeling,  touch  and  taste.  Originally  all  language 
was  pictorial,  and  pupils  as  well  as  adults  care  for  the  illustrated  book,  the 
illustrated  lecture  and  the  like,  so  we  see  the  important  part  these  concrete 
visual  images  occasion  in  our  daily  life. 

While  the  illustrations  of  the  visual  and  the  auditory  images  are  common 
in  literature  and  the  appeals  made  in  literature  to  those  sense  organs  of  lesser 

74 


note— smell,  touch,  and  feeling  are  less  often  found,  yet  they  are  of  value. 
As  effective  uses  of  the  sense  of  sight,  hearing,  smell,  taste  and  touch  we  cite 
the  following  from  literature. 

I.  From    Richard    Dehan    (Clothilde    Inez    Mary   Graves):     Between   Two 
Thieves. 

"The  horn  of  the  herdsman  sounded  from  the  lower  Alps,  and  neckbells  tinkled  as  the  long 
lines  of  placid  cows  moved  from  the  upper  pastures  in  obedience  to  the  call,  breathing  perfume 
of  scented  vetch  and  honied  clover,  leaving  froth  of  milk  from  trickling  udders  on  the  leaves  and 
grass  as  they  went." 

II.  From  Stevenson:   The  Black  Arrow. 

1.  "An  arrow  sang  in  the  air,  like  a  huge  hornet;  it  struck  old  Appleyard  between  thiB 
shoulder-blades,  and  pierced  him  clean  through,  and  he  fell  forward  on  his  face  among  the  cabbages. 
Hatch,  with  a  broken  cry,  leapt  into  the  air;  then,  stooping  double,  he  ran  for  the  cover  of  the 
house.  And  in  the  meanwhile  Dick  Shelton  had  dropped  behind  a  lilac,  and  had  his  cross-bow 
bent  and  shouldered,  covering  the  point  of  the  forest." 

2.  "The  daylight,  which  was  very  clear  and  gray,  showed  them  a  ribband  of  white  foot- 
path wandering  among  the  gorse.  Upon  this  path,  stepping  forth  from  the  margin  of  the  wood, 
a  white  figure  now  appeared.  It  paused  a  little,  and  seemed  to  look  about;  and 'then,  at  a  slow 
pace,  and  bent  almost  double,  it  began  to  draw  near  across  the  heath.  At  every  step  the  bell 
clanked.  Face  it  had  none;  a  white  hood,  not  even  pierced  with  eye-holes,  veiled  the  head; 
and  as  the  creature  moved,  it  seemed  to  feel  its  way  with  the  tapping  of  a  stick.  Fear  fell  upon 
the  lads,  as  cold  as  death. 

"A  leper,"  said  Dick,  hoarsely. 

"His  touch  is  death,"  said  Matcham.     "I-iet  us  run." 

Such  sensory  images  as  these  with  their  labeling  and  analysis  are  not 
an  indispensable  condition  to  the  teaching  of  English,  but  they  are  a  means 
to  an  end — to  stimulate,  to  arouse  interest.  Without  going  into  details,  there 
are  other  ways  to  the  vizualizing  process  which  are  also  vital  in  literature, 
such  as  the  use  of  concrete  illustration  to  emphasize  the  abstract,  and  finally 
the  objective  message  of  the  selection. 

These  images,  these  pictures  in  the  mind,  the  sensory  impressions,  i.  e., 
the  imaginative  concept  find  in  experience  their  basis.  Pupils  may  take  a 
particular  passage  in  a  selection  that  appeals  to  them  and  write  in  such  a  way 
about  it  as  to  bring  out  the  subjective  meaning.  This  message  may  come 
in  the  form  of  a  story,  an  essay,  or  poem,  but  whatever  it  is,  the  method  does 
not  vary.  The  objective  message  is  interpreted  in  a  vivid  way  by  the  mind 
of  the  pupil- and  he  arrives  at  the  subjective  meaning.  The  ultimate  meaning 
or  message  is  then  revealed.  "How  they  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to 
Aix"  by  Browning  is  a  good  illustration  of  this. 

In  ol-der  to  get  a  fuller  conception  of  the  ultimate  truth  or  subjective 
meaning  of  the  literary  message  the  pupil's  mind  must  perceive  the  subjective 
message  and  the  incidental  development  of  the  intellect  and  emotions  will 
eventually  bring  an  enlargement  of  consciousness.  By  revizualizing  concepts 
and  revitalizing  emotions  we  arrive  at  the  true  meaning  of  life.  This  har- 
monizes with  President  Wilson's  utterance  in  the  following  taken  from  the 
Supplement  in  English. 

"President  Wilson,  in  an  address  delivered  before  the  Association  of  American  Universities 
in  1910,  affirmed  that  the  higher  education  should  insure,  essentially,  to  all  privileged  to  attain 
it,  a  Scientific  Consciousness,   a  Philosophic  Consciousness,   a  Literary  Consciousness,  and  a 

76 


Historico-Economic  Consciousness.  The  teachers  of  science,  of  philosophy,  of  history  and  of 
sociology,  seem  to  have  established  their  right,  by  the  efifectiveness  of  their  work,  to  the  recognition 
thus  accorded.  It  is  for  us,  who  are  entrusted  with  the  task  of  fixing  the  sympathies  and  destiny 
of  the  coming  generation  towards  letters,  to  make  good  our  claim  to  the  third  place  in  the 
scheme." 

"It  is  as  possible  to  acquire  a  rhetorical  literary  consciousness,  by  study  of  twenty  or  thirty 
topics  through  a  period  of  at  least  two  years,  as  of  arithmetical  processes.  To  supply  these  topics, 
it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the  modes  of  literary  masters  and  adapt  them  inductively  to  the  student's 
powers.  The  first  task  will  be  to  teach  him  the  'notation'  of  rhetorical  or  literary  art;  that  is, 
how  to  use  sense-images,  how  to  impart  visual  quality  to  speech.  He  may  do  this  often,  by  instinct, 
orally.     He  cannot  compass  it  every  time,  in  writing,  without  detailed  instruction. 

We  find  that  the  simplest  means  used  by  great  writers  is  to  stimulate  rather  than  direct 
imagination.  They  produce  a  picture  by  bringing  incongruous  objects  or  elements  together.  For 
instance,  Hawthorne  begins  An  Old  Woman's  Tale  with  this  sentence: 

.  In  the  house  where  I  was  born,  there  used  to  be  an  old  woman  crouching 
all  day  long  over  the  kitchen  fire,  with  her  elbows  on  her  knees  and  her  feet  in 
the  ashes. 

■  Crouching  over  flames  in  a  fire-place  is  of  course  a  visualizing  pose,  but  the  minds  of  many 
readers  would  not  respond  to  it.  After  compelling  and  fixing  in  our  consciousness  this  scene, 
by  the  incongruity  of  shoes  thrust  into  warm  ashes  on  the  hearth,  the  author  proceeds  effectively 
with  his  sketch.     Kipling  forces  a  strong  picture,  in  The  Naulahka,  by  incongruity  of  action: — 

A  few  miles  from  Rawut  Junction  his  driver  had  taken  from  underneath 
the  cart  a  sword,  which  he  hung  around  his  neck,  and  sometimes  used  on  the  . 
bullocks  as  a  eoad. 

The  scene  presented  in  each  case  spreads  in  our  minds.  Each  author  depends  on  the  principle 
that,  if  we  can  arouse  imagination  by  shrewd  use  of  a  part,  the  mind  will  go  on  and  realize  the 
whole. 

Incongruity  of  elements  and  incongruity  of  action  will  furnish  several  weeks  of  incidental 
and  interesting  work,  both  in  constructing  visual  scenes  from  life,  and  in  searching  out  examples 
of  the  like  in  literature.  Sense-appeals  of  color,  of  sound,  of  taste,  of  touch,  and  of  odor,  and 
their  use  in  literature,  may  next  be  studied.  Examples  like  this  from  Hardy  will  be  found  not  to 
be  beyond  the  capacity  of  grammar  and  high-school  pupils: — 

The  lightning  now  was  the  color  of  silver,  and  gleamed  in  the  heavens  like 
a  mailed  army.  A  poplar  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  was  like  an  ink- 
stroke  on  burnished  tin. 

Of  course  the  learner  must  study  out  what  the  given  sensation  is  like,  before  he  attempts 
to  impart  an  experience  of  it  to  us  through  the  medium  of  words.  He  will  not  be  slow  in  meeting 
this  requirement.  He  is  more  acute  in  classifying  and  illustrating  his  impressions  than  he  is  like 
to  be  in  maturer  years.  Inquiry  into  the  potency  of  sense-appeals  to  imagination,  and  into  the 
secret  of  employing  this  power,  is  a  fascinating  theme.  We  all  use  this  power  more  or  less  natur- 
ally and  successfully  in  common  talk,  but  generally  fail  of  effectiveness  with  it  when  we  use  the 
pen.  Studies  of  sense-appeals  may  be  provisionally  handled,  along  with  usual  rhetorical  exercise, 
in  a  fortnight.  *  *  * 

He  might  study  also  here  how  to  combine  color  with  types  of  form;  as  in  this  example: 

The  sky  was  blue,  ever  so  blue,  and  all  silver-notched  at  the  edge,  and 
tepeed  with  snowy  mountain  peaks. 

Description  by  angles  and  other  enabling  lines  of  form  will  make  up  other  topics  or  divisions, 
in  the  student's  work.  He  should  now  variously  be  helped  to  realize  that  imagination  concerns 
itself  with  the  framework,  the  geometry  of  a  scene  or  object,  as  well  as  with  its  details.     When 


76 


the  governing  line  or  angle  is  given,  the  mind  will  often,  as  with  a  map,  make  over  the  outline 
into  a  completed  picture.     Note  the  effect,  on  imagination,  of  this  example: 

The  conductor  stood  leaning  towards  the  orchestra,  during  the  interruption, 
with  his  arm  and  baton  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  waiting  to  resume. 

From  the  suggestion  of  the  angle,  we  construct  the  pose  of  the  conductor,  and,  with  this, 
imagination  goes  on  to  supply  the  orchestra,  which  he  faces,  and  even  the  audience  behind  him. 

Elementary  description,  as  dependent  thus  upon  types  of  form  and  color,  can  be  administered 
provisionally  in  a  dozeri  or  fifteen  lessons.  Narration,  which  is  dependent  fundamentally  upon 
types  of  movement,  will  require  as  many  more.  The  student  must  learn  to  analyze  motion,  just  as 
he  analyzes  form  and  color,  and  must  specify  exactly  what  modes  appear.  If  he  can  declare 
the  right  one,  the  picture  is  sure.     Note  the  precision  of  Dickens  here: 

Casting  my  eyes  along  the  street  at  a  certain  point  of  my  progress,  I  beheld 
Trabb's  boy  approaching,  lashing  himself  with  an  empty  blue  bag. 

The  typical  idea  of  'lashing '  makes  us  see  the  movements  of  the  boy,  as  he  strikes  himself 
fiercely  with  the  bag  over  the  hips  and  shoulders.  This  action,  with  mention  of  the  'blue'  color, 
so  inspires  our  fancy  that  we  construct  the  whole  scene  of  the  street  and  the  speaker  as  well  as  the 
approaching  boy. 

Exposition,  as  the  literary  development  of  principles  from  facts,  belongs  next,  and  should 
be  taught  in  definite,  inductive  lessons.  Argumentation,  which  is  applied  exposition,  may  be 
postponed  till  a  later  year.  The  study  of  characterization,  characterization  by  the  use  of  traits 
or  imaginative  appeals,  should  follow  exposition.  There  is  probably  little  need  of  illustrating, 
here,  the  modes  of  characterization  used  by  great  writers.  The  following  is  a  notable  example 
from  Maupassant: 

Chicot,  on  the  contrary,  was  red,  fat,  short,  and  hairy.     He  looked  like  a 
raw  beefsteak.     He  continually  kept  his  left  eye  closed,  as  if  he  were  aiming  at 
something  or  at  somebody,  and  when  the  people  said  jestingly  to  him,  'Open 
your  eye,  Labouise',  he  would  answer,  'Never  fear,  sister,  I'll  open  it  when  there 
is  a  good  reason  to'. 
Labouise  had  a  habit  of  calling  every  one  'sister',  even  his  scavenger  partner. 
Of  course  we  gain  an  acquaintance,  by  this,  with  Chicot,  much  aS  if  we  had  seen  and  heard 
what  is  here  set  down.     We  gain  acquaintance  with  people  by  the  same  means,  whether  in  life 
or  books.     We  must  know  how  to  use  this  means  in  order  to  characterize  successfully,  just  as 
we  must  know  the  means  of  describing  and  narrating  vividly.     Rhetoric  cannot  be  administered, 
more  than  carpentry  or  cooking  or  piano-playing,  in  a  general  way.     There  are  graded  and  definite 
steps,  steps  of  which  none  can  be  omitted,  in  every  art.  (25) 

V.     Characterization. 

Oral  characterizations,  which  stimulate  the  mind  to  discover  the  person 
as  well  as  the  personality  are  not  dependent  upon  incongruity  of  elements  or 
upon  sense-appeals.  There  are  available  besides,  the  Vizualizing  Action  and 
the  Vizualizing  Pose.  These  supply  a  momentary  picture  by  way  of  provincial 
or  incidental  characterization. 
I.     Illustrations  of  Vizualizing  Action:  «» 

1.    From  Life: 

"Coming  along  the  street  was  a  boy  in  brown  knickerbockers,  eating  from  two  ice-cream 
cones,  one  in  each  hand." 

"The  captain  used  glue  to  seal  his  letters,  and  never  failed  to  pound  on  each,  after  using 
the  glue,  with  his  fist." 


(25)  Nebraska  High  School  Manual,  pp.  28,  7,  8,  9,  10.      (Sherman.) 

77 


2.    From  Literature: 

"No",  said  Lapham  rather  absently.  He  put  out  his  huge  foot  and  pushed  the  ground- 
glass  door  shut  between  his  little  den  and  the  bookkeepers,  in  their  larger  den  outside. 

(Howells.) 

II.     Illustrations  of  Vizualizing  Pose. 

"Mrs.  Lapham  stood  flapping  the  cheque  which  she  held  in  her  right  hand  against  the  edge 
of  her  left." 

"During  the  whole  evening,  Mr.  Jellaby  sat  in  a  corner  with  his  head  against  the  wall,  as  if 
he  were  subject  to  low  spirits." 

A  further  means  by  which  to  show  the  presence  of  persons  to  the  imagina- 
tion is  by  singularities  in  dress  or  looks. 

"Turgenev  continually  uses  the  mode  to  introduce  special  characters  visually  and  will 
furnish  our  best  examples  here: 

A  boy  of  six  came  up,  grimed  all  over  with  soot  like  a  kitten,  with  a  shaved  head,  perfectly 
1  aid  in  places,  in  a  torn,  striped  frock,  and  huge  overshoes  on  his  bare  feet. 

'There  was  the  light  click  of  hurrying  heels,  the  door  opened,  and  in  the  doorway  appeared 
a  girl  of  eighteen,  in  a  chintz  cotton  gown,  with  a  black  straw  hat  on  her  fair,  rather  curly 
hair'."  (36) 

We  become  acquainted  with  people  by  acts,  words,  appearances,  and 
environment  and  judge  them  by  means  of  "appeals"  of  character,  mood  or 
incidents  as  based  on  the  law  of  cause  and  effect.  The  mode  of  mental  action 
in  interpreting  appeals  is  emotional,  i.  e.,  it  is  an  inference  made  in  imagination, 
as  distinguished  from  the  purely  logical  process.  (For  further  particulars  see 
number  36,  in  BibHography.) 

As  regards  the  preparation  of  English  Literature  in  the  primary  and 
secondary  schools,  Dean  Sherman,  of  the  Graduate  College,  University  of 
Nebraska,  in  "English  and  English  Literature  in  the  College",  says: 

"The  fact  that  literature  is  cast,  not  in  the  kind  of  English  that  the  school  youth  speaks, 
but  in  the  universalized  idiom,  terse  and  weighty  in  matter,  and  considerably  heavier  in  vocabulary, 
constitutes  the  chief  difficulty.  The  average  college  student,  in  his  first  year  of  residence,  can 
scarcely  read  classical  English  prose  with  ready  understanding.  Professor  McElroy,  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  puts  the  case  more  strongly.     He  says: 

'Out  of  the  thousands  of  young  men  who  in  the  last  twenty-two  years  have  entered  the 
institution  to  which  our  personal  knowledge  extends,  only  a  few  could  be  said  to  know  their  own 
language.  *  *  *  Their  vocabulary  was  scarcely  larger  than  a  day  laborer's;  their  powers  of  ob 
servation  were  of  the  lowest — of  a  page  of  English  literature  read  by  them  they  could  give  nothing 
approaching  a  satisfactory  account;  the  words  had  passed  before  them  in  marshalled  array, 
only  to  leave  them  half  blind.  Here  is  again  the  same  gulf  fixed  between  spoken  and  written 
English  that  has  been  already  considered  in  the  first  part  of  this  paper.  *  *  *  This  is  the  difference 
to  be  overcome.  They  must  learn  the  ultimate  message  out  of  written  words  just  as  they  got  it 
out  of  the  spoken.  They  must  learn  to  interpret  books  just  as  they  read  men  and  things  in  their 
daily  walks  outside.  The  new  plan  of  using  complete  books  like  Ivanhoe  and  Tales  From  Shakes- 
peare as  school  readers  in  the  grades,  insures  greater  and  more  immediate  interest  than  the  old 
stereotyped  and  often  meaningless  'reading  lesson'.  *  *  * 

Literature  is  a  thing  to  be  understood  and  felt;  and  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  must 
so  regard  it.  *  *  * 

The  boy  who  comes  to  college  should  have  learned  how  to  gather  up  the  sense  out  of  a  pajre 
of  plain,  common  prose  as  quickly  as  he  ever  will.  Then  can  anything  be  done  to  keep  the  sensi- 
bilities of  school  children  from  being  intellectualized  and  deadened  before  college  years  are 
reached?    Very  evidently.     Sixty  years  or  more  ago,  under  the  inspiration  of  the  poet  Grundtvig, 

(36)  Sherman,  pp.  94-129.     (Elements  of  Literary  Composition.) 

78 


a  school  was  founded  at  Askov,  Jutland,  for  the  specific  end  of  developing  the  emotional  side  of  the 
mind.  This  institution  has  become  famous,  and  numerous  sister  academies  have  sprung  up  all 
over  the  kingdom.  They  are  called  Hoj  Skoler,  'High  Schools',  are  supported  by  the  Government, 
and  aim  professedly  and  conscientiously  to  secure  for  their  pupils  the  aandeliy  udvikling,  'educa- 
tion of  the  sensibilities'.  The  means  depended  upon  for  such  effect  is  principally  the  study  of 
famous  men,  the  great  characters  of  history.  A  better  means  would  surely  be  literature,  if  the 
country  had  one  rich  and  varied  enough.  Yet  these  schools  are  considered  wholly  successful, 
and  are  growing  in  popularity.  If  we  can  learn  how  to  teach  to  the  same  effect  we  can  easily 
do  better  in  this  country.  Our  instructors  must  have  their  pupils  read  emotional  literature  to 
help  them  feel  what  has  feeling  in  it,  just  as  thought  literature  to  help  them  interpret  thought 
meanings.  Let  them  tell  something  like  the  story  of  Rah  and  His  Friends  or  the  execution  of 
Charlotte  Corday,  preparatory  to  class  reading.  Further  on,  in  the  first  high  school  years,  some- 
thing vastly  better  can  be  done,  as  many  experiments  have  shown.  This  present  term,  a  tenth 
grade  teacher  that  I  know  found  it  impossible  to  interest  her  pupils  in  the  lyrics  of  Tennyson, 
the  prescribed  work  for  her  year.  Only  a  few  in  the  class  were  not  bored  with  the  notes  and  com- 
ments they  had  to  learn.  There  was  particularly  a  big  German  boy,  who  was  good  in  other  work, 
but  conspicuously  dull  and  slow  at  this.  The  experiment  was  tried  of  setting  the  class  at  finding 
out  what  there  was  in  the  poems  that  was  not  prose,  and  determining  what  words  and  expressions 
had  feeling  in  them.  The  whole  class  was  interested  in  the  very  first  exercise.  In  the  second, 
the  stupid  German  boy  and  the  other  dull  ones  were  as  good  as  the  best;  and  the  whole  class 
read  once  more  the  poems  first  studied  as  unmeaning  things,  with  evident  delight.  There  will 
be  small  risk  of  that  class  losing  its  capacity  to  respond  to  emotional  literature,  if  the  power  of 
discernment  is  not  again  disused.  ♦  *  *  I  had  a  student  once  who  was  recommended  by  his  teacher 
as  a  genius.  He  read  only  the  selectest  things,  and  walked  knee  deep  in  criticism.  Moreover, 
he  was  afraid  of  studying  literature  systematically,  according  to  class  methods,  lest  it  should  spoil 
his  powers  of  appreciation  and  injure  the  delicacy  of  his  poetic  sense.  I  tested  those  powers 
and  that  sense  one  day  by  getting  him  to  read  these  lines  from  Tennyson: 

'And  I  rode  and  found  a  mighty  hill. 
And  on  top  a  city  walled;  the  spires 
Pricked  with  incredible  pinnacles  unto  Heaven '. 

'Where  is  the  poetry  here  in  words?'  I  asked.  *I  think  it  is  in  'incredible',  he  said,  or 
'spires'.  'How  about  'pricked?'  I  ventured.  'I  don't  understand  that',  he  answered.  'I 
don't  see  any  meaning  in  the  sentence'.  Yet  all  there  is  of  Tennyson  consists  in  tremendous 
figures  like  this — which  indeed  is  but  one  of  the  minor  great  ones.  This  student  poor  in  penetra- 
tion as  he  was,  could  read  poetry  far  better  than  the  majority  of  my  class  when  they  left  college, 
or  of  any  college  class  that  I  have  since  known.  *  *  * 

Th^  simple  truth  is:  Taste  is  of  the  feelings;  and  we  have  been  trying  to  make  it  a  thing 
of  the  intellect,  of  reason.  Polite  literature  appeals  to  taste  and  must  be  spiritually  discerned 
and  appreciated."  (35) 

Literature  is,  moreover,  the  highest  form  of  art.  The  aim  of  art  is  to 
convey  an  emotion  from  one  soul  to  another. 

Tolstoi's  definition  of  art  is  as  follows: 

"Art  is  a  human  activity,  consisting  in  this,  that  one  man  consciously,  by  means  of  certain 
external  signs,  hands  on  to  others  feelings  he  has  lived  through,  and  that  other  people  are  infected 
by  these  feelings,  and  also  experience  them. 

Art  is  not,  as  the  metaphysicians  say,  the  manifestation  of  some  mysterious  idea  of  beauty, 
or  God;  *  *  *  but  it  is  a  means  of  union  among  men,  joining  them  together  in  the  same  feelings, 
and  indispensible  for  the  life  and  progress  toward  well-being  of  individuals  and  humanity.  *  *  * 
The  estimations  of  the  value  of  art  (i.  e.,  of  the  feelings  it  transmits)  depends  on  men's  perception 
of  the  meaning  of  life."  (44) 


(35)  Sherman  in  Educational  Review,  pp.  42-56. 
(44)  Tolstoi,  pp.  43-45, 


79 


He  further  says: 

"Acording  to  Burke  (1729-1792 — 'Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Our  Ideas  of 
the  Sublime  and  Beautiful'),  the  sublime  and  beautiful,  which  are  the  aim  of  art,  have  their  origin 
in  the  promptings  of  self-preservation  and  society.  These  feelings,  examined  in  their  source, 
are  means  for  the  maintenance  of  the  race  through  the  individual.  The  first  (self-preservation) 
is  attained  by  nourishment,  defense,  and  war;  the  second  (society)  by  intercourse  and  propaga- 
tion. Therefore  self-defense,  and  war,  which  is  bound  up  with  it,  is  the  source  of  the  sublime; 
ociability,  and  the  sex-instinct,  which  is  bpund  up  with  it,  is  the  source  of  beauty."  (44) 

Longinus  writes  that  there  are  five  different  sources  of  lofty  style  which 
are  the  most  productive,  the  power  of  expression  being  a  foundation  common 
to  all  five  types,  and  inseparable  from  them.     He  informs  us  as  follows: 

"First  and  most  potent  is  the  faculty  of  grasping  great  conceptions,  as  I  have  defined  it  in 
my  work  on  Xenophon.  Second  comes  passion,  strong  and  impetuous.  These  two  constituents 
of  sublimity  are  in  most  cases  native-born,  those  which  now  follow  come  through  art:  the  proper 
halnding  of  figures,  which  again  seem  to  fall  under  two  heads,  figures  of  thought,  and  figures  of 
diction;  then  noble  phraseology,  with  subdivisions,  choice  of  words,  and  use  of  tropes,  and  of 
elaboration;  and  fifthly,  that  cause  of  greatness  which  includes  in  itself  all  that  preceded  it, 
dignified  and  spirited  composition."  (21) 

Gayley  in  his  "Literary  Criticism"  gives  the  following  excerpts: 

1  Longinus,  Dionysus — On  the  Sublime — "The  chief  value  of  this  treatise  is  that  it  shows 
us  how  the  classic  literature  appealed  to  the  literary  sense  of  the  ancients." 

2.    Herbert  Spencer:   Essay  on  Philosophy  on  Style: 

"One  of  the  most  important  of  modern  contributions  to  the  theory  of  style.  Spencer 
attempts  to  explain  the  effect  of  both  prose  and  poetry  upon  the  principle  that  the  language  is 
most  forcible  which  best  economizes  the  mental  energies  and  the  mental  sensibilities."  (14) 

And  again  in  his  Classic  Myths  he  says: 

"That  the  study  of  the  classic  myths  stimulates  to  creative  production,  prepares  for  the 
appreciation  of  poetry  and  other  kinds  of  art,  and  furnishes  a  clue  to  the  spiritual  development 
of  the  race. 

1.  Classic  mythology  has  been  for  succeeding  poetry,  sculpture,  and  painting,  a  treasure 
house  replete  with  golden  tales  and  glimmering  thoughts,  passions  in  the  rough  and  smooth, 
and  fancies  rich  bejewelled. 

2.  For  the  reader  the  study  of  mythology  does  much  for  a  poet,  sculptor,  or  painter.  It 
assists  him  to  thread  the  labyrinth  of  art,  not  merely  with  the  clew  of  tradition,  but  with  a  thread 
of  surer  knowledge  whose  surest  strand  is  sympathy.  *  *  * 

The  knowledge  of  mythic  lore  has  led  men  in  the  past  to  broadly  appreciate  the  motives 
and  conditions  of  ancient  art  and  literature,  and  the  uniform  and  ordered  evolution  of  the  aesthetic 
sense.  And,  besides  enriching  us  with  heirlooms  of  fiction  and  pointing  us  to  the  sources  of 
imaginative  joy  from  which  early  poets  of  Hellenic  verse  or  Norse,  or  English,  drank,  the  classic 
myths  quicken  the  imaginative  and  emotional  faculties  to-day,  just  as  of  old.  *  *  *  The  study, 
when  illustrated  by  master  pieces  of  literature  and  art,  should  lead  to  the  appreciation  of  concrete 
artistic  productions  of  both  kinds.  *  *  * 

Furthermore,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  myths  of  the  ancients,  as  the  earliest  literary 
crystallization  of  social  order  and  religious  fear,  record  the  incipient  history  of  religious  ideals 
and  moral  conduct.  For  though  ethnologists  may  insist  that  to  search  for  truth  in  mythology 
is  vain,  the  best  of  them  will  grant  that  to  search  for  truth  through  mythology  is  wise  and  profitable. 

The  term  classic,  however,  is,  of  course,  not  restricted  to  the  products  of  Greece  and  Rome; 
nor,  is  it  employed  as  synonymous  with  classical  or  as  antithetical  to  Romantic.  From  the 
extreme  Classical  to  the  extreme  Romantic  is  a  far  cry;  but  as  human  life  knows  no  divorce  of 


(44)  Tolstoi,  p.  19. 
(21)  Longinus,  p.  13. 
(14)  Gayley,  pp.  222-228. 

80 


necessity  from  freedom,  so  genuine  art  knows  neither  an  unrelieved  Classical  nor  an  unrestrained 
Romantic.  Classical  and  Romantic  are  relative  terms.  The  Classical  and  the  Romantic  of  one 
generation  may  merit  equally  to  be  the  classic  of  the  next."  (15) 

•  Closely  associated  with  the  word  "classic"  is  the  word  "culture"  both 
of  which  include,  we  may  say,  the  element  of  refinement.  What  is  culture? 
Matthew  Arnold  in  his  essay  on  Culture  and  Anarchy  says: 

"The  scope  of  the  essay  is  to  recommend  culture  as  the  great  help  out  of  our  present 
difficulties;  culture  being  a  pursuit  of  our  total  perfection  by  means  of  getting  to  know,  in  all  the 
matters  which  most  concern  us,  the  best  which  has  been  thought  and  said  in  the  world;  and 
through  this  knowledge,  turning  a  stream  of  fresh  and  free  thought  upon  our  stock  notions  and 
habits,  which  we  now  follow  stanchly  but  mechanically,  vainly  imagining  that  there  is  virtue  in 
following  them  stanchly  which  makes  up  for  the  mischief  of  following  them  mechanically. 

Certainly  we  are  no  enemies  of  the  Nonconformists;  for,  on  the  contrary,  what  we  aim  at 
is  their  perfection.  But  culture  which  is  the  study  of  perfection,  ( — p.  XIII)  leads  us,  as  we  in 
the  following  pages  have  shown,  to  conceive  of  true  human  perfection  as  a  harmonious  perfection, 
developing  all  sides  of  our  humanity;  and  as  a  general  perfection,  developing  all  parts  of  our 
society. 

Culture  then  is  properly  described  not  as  having  its  origin  in  curiosity,  but  as  having  its 
origin  in  the  love  of  perfections;  it  is  a  study  of  perfection.  It  moves  by  the  force,  not  merely 
or  primarily  of  the  scientific  passion  for  mere  knowledge,  but  also  of  the  normal  and  social  passion 
for  doing  good.  As  in  the  first  view  of  it,  we  took  for  its  worthy  motto  Montesquien's  words:  'To 
render  an  intelligent  being  yet  more  worthy ',  so,  in  the  second  view  of  it,  there  is  no  better  motto 
which  it  can  have  than  these  words  of  Bishop  Wilson:  'To  make  reason  and  the  will  of  God 
prevail."  (2) 

While  culture  may  cause  us  "to  conceive  of  true  human  perfection  as  a 
harmonious  perfection,  developing  all  sides  of  our  humanity",  yet  we  have  the 
practical  or  knowledge-getting  side  to  think  of  in  the  development  of  all  parts 
of  our  society — a  correlation  of  the  two  is  essential  in  order  to  develop  a  well- 
rounded  person.  Among  the  "Courses  of  Study  in  English"  which  were  sent 
in  reply  to  Questionnaire  "A"  one — an  Academic-Normal  Course  in  a  Tech- 
nical School — showed  that  there  was  an  attempt  at  the  correlation  of  the 
development  of  the  sensibiHties  and  of  the  knowledge-getting  side  of  life. 
This  Hampton  Institute  "Course  of  Study"  says:  "The  Trade  School  and 
Agricultural  Department  furnish  lists  of  subjects  suggested  by  their  work, 
and  these  give  an  endless  variety  of  topics  for  short  oral  exposition".  (For 
Course  of  Study  in  English  for  this  school  see  Part  II,  Existing  Conditions.) 

Summary:  The  purpose  which  the  teacher  of  English  has  in  mind, 
primarily,  is  to  instruct  the  pupils  to  read  with  understanding,  to  speak  cor- 
rectly, to  write  correctly,  to  develop  the  sensibiHties  of  the  pupil  and  to 
promote  his  information  or  knowledge-getting  powers.  In  order  to  do  this 
the  English  teacher  must  note  the  material  changes  that  overtake  the  pupil 
during  the  junior  and  senior  stage  of  high  school  work  and  form  and  exalt 
the  new  sex-consciousness  by  noble  literature  that  presents  healthy  types  of 
womanhood  and  manhood.  Teachers  of  English  must  deal  with  the  senti- 
ments as  well  as  with  the  understanding  through  use  of  literature.  Literature 
is  efficient  in  developing  the  feelings  of  youth  if  properly  administered.  The 
mere  mechanical  pronunciation  of  words  as  an  end  in  itself  will  not  make  the 
pupil  proficient,  but  he  must  learn  to  read  in  such  a  way  as  to  recreate  in 


(15)  Gayley,  pp.  XXXI-XXXIII;  7 
(2)  Arnold,  pp.  X-XIII;  7. 

81 


his  own  consciousness  and  in  his  hearer's  consciousness  the  essential  concepts 
and  the  essential  emotions  which  dictated  the  author's  writing.  Words  must 
be  made  vital  that  sentences,  paragraphs  and  the  whole  composition  may 
be  transfused  with  the  beauty  and  strength  of  imagination. 

During  the  adolescent  period,  Form  begins  to  come  into  its  own  independ- 
ent rights.  The  eye,  which  in  most  persons  is  the  sense  nearest  the  mind  is 
the  seat  of  the  sense  of  color,  light  and  shade  and  form.  Of  these  the  color- 
sense  seems  to  appeal  most  to  the  sentiments.  While  in  the  preadolescent 
stage  the  pupil  sees  light  and  shade  best,  the  pupil  in  the  adolescent  stage  far 
excels  the  preadolescent  in  response  to  colors  about  him.  The  blue  sky,  the 
blossoms,  the  green  fields,  etc.,  now  inspire  a  new  feeling.  Colors  have  a 
suggestive  meaning  and  symbolic  power,  crimson  suggests  blood,  yellow 
suggests  gold,  and  there  is  now  felt  both  a  new  aesthetic  pleasure  and  a  new 
aesthetic  pain  in  the  contrast  and  harmony  of  color.  The  pupil  should  be 
given  an  opportunity  to  express  in  words  the  music  and  poetry  of  his  soul. 
In  this  crude  stage  of  self-expression  we  have  the  so-called  Verse  Writing. 
Reading  and  memorizing  poetry  will  serve  to  develop  the  natural  instinct 
for  rhythm  and  euphony.  Life  afifords  a  splendid  array  of  subjects  for  this 
work  such  as  the  falling  of  leaves,  trees  swaying  in  the  wind,  snow-storms,  etc. 

In  a  highly  complex  system  the  individual  child  is  apt  to  be  lost  in  the 
midst  of  machinery.  The  remedy  is  individual  promotion — as  now  used  in 
junior  high  schools — at  reasonably  frequent  intervals,  on  the  basis  of  single 
subjects  instead  of  by  grade,  or  groups  of  subjects.  As  education  is  a  prepara- 
tion for  completer  living,  it  must  include  usefulness  and  happiness.  For  this 
reason,  it  should  equip  a  pupil  for  a  vocation,  and  also  furnish  him  means 
for  the  enjoyment  of  the  refined  pleasures  of  life. 

While  many  of  these  pupils  come  from  homes  of  no  great  intelligence, 
we  should  give  them,  as  their  right,  not  only  somewhat  the  practical  things 
of  life,  but  arouse  in  them  the  desire  for  the  things  of  culture  also.  Their 
possibilities  of  enjoyment  outside  of  their  occupational  hours  should  not  be 
denied  them.  The  demand,  in  this  age  is  great  for  a  liberal  education  as  well 
as  for  a  vocational  one,  and  vice  versa.  We  want  good  intelHgent  citizens 
as  well  as  good  workmen.  We  should  aim  to  inspire  them  to  obtain  a  good 
education  and  good  training  that  they  may  become  good  citizens. 

To  accomplish  this  a  pupil,  at  the  beginning  of  his  senior  high  school 
course,  should  have  clearly  in  mind  a  general  high  school  aim — Vocational 
Education,  General  Education  or  College  Preparation.  To  attain  these  aims 
the  High  School  Program  of  courses  may  present  six  groups  of  courses,  a 
Required  Group  and  five  Elective  Groups.  He  must  decide  which  of  the 
five  Elective  Groups — Academic,  Professional,  Commercial,  Agricultural  or 
Technical  Arts — will  best  help  him  to  realize  his  school  aim.  The  Required 
Group  should  consist  of  English,  Physical  Education,  and  Chorus  or  Orchestra 
training.  In  addition  to  this  he  must  take  the  required  subjects  and  the 
necessary  elective  subjects  in  the  chosen  Elective  Group.  The  Prevocational 
and  Junior  High  School  Course  may  present  five  groups  of  courses,  a  Required 
Group  and  four  Elective  Groups.     The  pupil  must  decide  which  of  the  four 

82 


Elective  Groups — Academic,  Commercial,  Agricultural  or  Industrial  Arts*  will 
best  help  him  to  realize  his  school  aim.  The  Required  Group  should  consist 
of  English,  history,  geography,  sewing  and  cooking  for  girls,  and  manual 
training  or  shop  work  for  boys.  Physical  Education  and  Chorus  or  Orchestra 
practice.  In  addition  to  these  he  must  take  the  required  subjects  and  the 
necessary  Elective  subjects  in  the  chosen  Elective  Group. 

The  suggestive  "Course  of  Study"  in  English  is  meant  to  be  flexible 
and  is  open  to  modifications  according  to  the  needs  of  the  school.  (It  is 
outlined  in  the  next  division  of  this  thesis.) 


♦This  term  varies. 


83 


Part  IV. 
COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  ENGLISH. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  ENGLISH  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
I.     Prevocational  and  Junior  High  Schools 

Grade  VII-B.  First  Year,  First  Semester  English  L 


Composition. 

A. 

Constructive  English. 

1. 

Form 

a. 

Composition — Oral  and  Written. 

(1) 

Paragraph  Themes:    (One  a  week.) 
tion;        (b)      Description;       (c) 
(d)     Argumentation. 

(a)   Narra- 
Exposition; 

(2) 

Long  Composition,  or  theme.     (One  a  month.) 

(3) 

Letter-writing:    (a)  Social  letters; 
letters. 

(b)  Business 

(4) 

Verse-writing. 

(6) 

Book  Reports.    Book  Reviews. 

(6) 

Development  of  Topic  Sentences. 

» 

(7) 

Old-time  Tales,  Oral  reproduction: 

(Select  one.) 

(a)  Longfellow:  Bell  of  Atri;  (b)  Arnold:  Death 
of  Balder. 

(8)  Historical  Tales,  Oral  reproduction:  (Select 
one.)      (a)   Famous  Tales  from   Other  Lands; 

(b)  Stories  of  Our  Country. 

(9)  Stories  and  story-telling,  Oral  reproduction: 
(Select  one.)  (a)  Grandmother  and  Grandfather 
Stories,     (b)  Fireside  Stories  Retold. 

(10)  Biographical  Sketches. 

(11)  Practical  use  of  books  and  libraries. 

(a)  The  book,  its  parts,  its  care. 

(b)  The  Dictionary. 

(c)  The  Encyclopedia. 
2.    Sources  of  Material. 

a.  Personal  experience. 

b.  Observation. 

c.  Stories  and  poems  close  to  child-life. 

d.  Literature,  history,  geography. 

e.  Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science. 

f .  Suggestive  questions. 

g.  Suggestive  topics. 

h.    Pictures  suggestive  of  the  child's  experience. 
i.     Vocational  Guidance  Material. 
B.    Technical  English. 
1.    Study  Material. 

a.    Applied  study  of  material. 
(1)  Sentence  Structure. 
87 


(2)    Paragraph  Structure. 

b.  Parts  of  Speech  Vitalized. 

(1)  Teach  the:  Noun  as  the  type  combining  element. 
Adjective  as  the  type  modifying  element.  Verb 
as  the  type  asserting  element. 

(2)  Train  the  child  to:  Keep  his  pronouns  clear  and 
choose  right  forms.  Keep  clear  his  correlatives. 
Use  carefully  the  subordinate  conjunctions. 

c.  Correction  of  errors  in  speech. 

d.  Detailed  study  of  the  noun. 

e.  Parsing,  analysis,  diagram. 

II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 

1.    Study  Material.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

a.  Poetry. 

(1)  Hemans:  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 

(2)  Bryant:   The  Forest  Hymn. 

(3)  Whittier:  New  Year. 

b.  Fiction. 

(1)  Mark  Twain:   The  Pony  Rider. 

(2)  Stevenson:   Treasure  Island. 

(3)  Irving:  Rip  Van  Winkle. 

c.  Plays. 

(1)    King  Robert  of  Sicily. 

d.  Dramatization. 

(1)  Dickens:   Christmas  Carols. 

(2)  Longfellow:   Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 

e.  Classic,  Northern  and  Medieval  Myths  as:    (Select  as 
needed.) 

(1)  Baldwin:  Hero  Tales  Told  in  School;  The 
Golden  Fleece;  Story  of  Siegfried;  Stories  of 
Roland;   Stories  of  the  King. 

(2)  Barker:  Stories  of  Old  Greece  and  Rome. 

(3)  Gayley:   Classical  Myths.     (Selected.) 

(4)  Hutchinson:   Golden  Porch.     (Selected.) 

(5)  Mabie:  Norse  Stories. 

2.    Memorizing. 

a.  Prose.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

(1)  Dickens:  Selections  from  Pickwick  Papers. 

(2)  Lincoln:   Gettysburg  Address. 

b.  Poetry. 

(1)  Bryant:  Death  of  the  Flowers. 

(2)  Lowell:  Youssouf. 

(3)  Van  Dyke:  Ruby  Crowned  Kinglet. 

88 


3.  Quotations. 

a.  Prose.     (Selected.) 

b.  Poetry.     (Selected.) 

4.  Required  Reading. 

a.  Dickens:   Christmas  Carol. 

b.  Longfellow:   Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 

c.  Whittier:   Snow  Bound. 

5.  Suggested  list  for  telling  or  reading  by  teacher. 

Antin:   The  Promised  Land. 

Fox:   Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come. 

Edgar:   Stories  from  Morris. 

Hugo:   Jean  Valjean  in  Les  Miserables. 

Mitchell:    The  death  of   Major  Andre  from  "Hugh 

Wynne". 

Martineau:   Peasant  and  Prince. 

Washington:   Up  from  Slavery. 

6.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.  (Each  pupil  make 
an  oral  report  on  any  one  book  from  outline  prepared  by 
teacher.) 

a.    Prose. 

Alcott:  Little  Women;  Little  Men. 

Aldrich:  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy. 

Anonymous:  Arabian  Nights. 

Baldwin:   Story  of  Siegfried. 

Beale:   Stories  from  the  Old  Testament. 

Brooks:   Boy  Emigrants. 

Brown:   Rab  and  His  Friends. 

Barrie:   Peter  and  Wendy. 

Dickens:  Old  Curiosity  Shop  or  Cricket  on  the  Hearth. 

Dodge:  Hans  Brinker. 

Duncan:   Story  of  Sonny  Sahib. 

Finch:  Nathan  Hale. 

Field:   Christmas  Tree  and  Christmas  Verse. 

Eggleston:  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 

Grimm:   Fairy  Tales. 

Hawthorne:  Tanglewood  Tales. 

Jewett:  Betty  Leicester. 

Kingsley:  Heroes. 

Kipling:  Just  So  Stories. 

Lamb:  Adventures  of  Ulysses. 

La  Ramee:   Dog  of  Flanders. 

Liljencrantz:   Thrall  of  Lief  the  Lucky. 

Macleod:  Book  of  King  Arthur. 

Page:  Two  Little  Confederates. 

Pyle:   Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood. 

Roberts:  Red  Fox. 

Spyri:  Heidi. 

89 


Stevenson:   Will  'o  the  Mill  (in  The  Merry  Men). 
Trowbridge:   Cudjo's  Cave. 
Wright:   The  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds, 
b.    Poetry. 

Bryant:    A  Forest  Hymn;   Hymn  to  North  Star;   The 

White-Footed  Deer. 

Gary:   Order  for  a  Picture. 

Gheney:   The  Happiest  Heart. 

Finch :   The  Blue  and  the  Gray. 

Harte:   What  the  Ghimney  Sang. 

Hemans:   Gasabianca. 

Holmes:   One  Horse  Shay. 

Howe:   Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic. 

Kingsley:   The  Three  Fishers. 

Longfellow:    The  Psalm  of  Life;    Paul  Revere's  Ride. 

Lowell:   The  First  Snowfall. 

Norton:   Soldiers  of  Bingen. 

Riley:   The  Name  of  Old  Glory. 

Scott:   Lochinvar. 

Sill:   Opportunity. 

Tennyson:   Sir  Galahad. 

B.  Vocational  Literature:  Select  one  book  for  each  pupil.  (Each 
pupil  after  reading  a  book  will  give  an  oral  report  of  it  from  his 
own  skeleton  outline.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

a.  Adams:   Harper's  Indoor  Books  for  Boys. 

b.  Hall:   Stories  of  Invention: 

c.  Paret:   Harper's  Handy  Book  for  Girls. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading:  (Each  pupil  make 
oral  report  on  any  one  book  from  his  own  skeleton  outline.)  This  list 
furnishes  material  for  Vocational  Guidance,  etc. 

Andrews:   The  Perfect  Tribute. 

Bolton:  Lives  of  Girls  Who  Became  Famous. 

Keller:   Story  of  My  Life. 

Franklin:   Autobiography. 

Mabie:   Heroes  Every  Child  Should  Know. 

Thayer:   Men  Who  Win. 


Grade  VII-A.  First  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  II 

I.     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 
1.    Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)    Short  themes — Paragraph  theme.    (One  a  week.) 
Narration;  Description;  Exposition;  Argumenta- 

90 


tion — Paragraph  on  each  side  of  the  question  by 
different  pupils. 

(2)  Long  themes  or  compositions.     (One  a  month.) 

(3)  Historical  Tales — Oral  reproduction:  (a)  Stories 
from  the  Masters;  (b)  Everyday  Studies: 
(l)FrankHn:  Turning  the  Grindstone;  (2)  Irving: 
The  Captain's  Tale. 

(4)  Letter- writing. 

(5)  Verse-writing. 

(6)  Developing  the  pupil's  vocabulary  through 
experience. 

2.  Sources  of  Material, 

a.  Personal  experience. 

b.  Observation. 

c.  Stories  and  poems  close  to  child-life. 

d.  Literature,  history,  geography. 

f.  Suggestive  questions. 

g.  Suggestive  topics,  etc. 

3.  Reading  or  telling  of  stories  by  teacher.     (Selected.) 

B.    Technical  English. 
1.    Study  Material. 

a.  Applied  study  of  material. 

b.  Review  paragraph  structure. 

c.  Review  sentence  structure. 

d.  Corrections  of  errors  in  speech. 

e.  Detailed  study  of  pronoun,  adjective,  adverb. 

f.  Phrases. 

g.  Parsing,  analysis,  diagram. 

II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 

1.    Study  Material.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

a.  Poetry. 

(1)  Longfellow:  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn.   (Selected.) 

(2)  Whittier:   Snow  Bound. 

b.  Fiction. 

(1)  Hawthorne:  The  Great  Stone  Face. 

(2)  Irving:  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

(3)  KipHng:    The  Jungle  Book. 

c.  Dramatization. 

Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

d.  Memorizing. 

(1)  Poetry:  Holland:  God  Give  us  Men;  Emerson: 
The  Snow;  Longfellow:  The  Children's  Hour; 
Carlyle:   To-day. 

(2)  Prose.     (Selected.) 

91 


3.  Quotations  or  Literary  Gems. 

(1)  Prose.     (Selected.) 

(2)  Poetry.     (Selected.) 

4.  Reading  or  telling  stories  by  teacher.     (To  be  selected.) 

5.  Required  Reading. 
Dickens:   David  Copperfield. 

Kipling:    Captains  Courageous;   Jungle  Books. 

6.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (Read  and  report 
on  two  additional  books  from  Grade  VII-B  list.) 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

Adams:   Harper's  Outdoor  Book  for  Boys. 
Fowler:   The  Boy — How  to  Help  Him  Succeed. 
Baker:   Boy's  Book  of  Inventions. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Bolton:   Lives  of  Poor  Boys  Who  Became  Famous. 

Coe:   Heroes  of  Everyday  Life. 

Miller:   Things  that  Endure. 

Stoddard:   Men  of  Business. 

Williams:   Some  Successful  Americans. 

Wilson:   Making  the  Most  of  Ourselves. 


Grade  VIII-B.  Second  Year,  First  Semester.  English  III. 

I.     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 
1.    Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Forms  of  discourse — narration,  description,  ex- 
position, argumentation:  (a)  Short  themes — 
paragraph  themes  (one  each  week);  (b)  Long 
themes  (one  each  month);  (c) -Letter-writing; 
(d)  Notes  of  invitation;  (e)  AppH cations  for 
positions;   (f)  Review  social  and  business  letters. 

(2)  Verse-writing. 

(3)  Topics:  (a)  Simple  exposition  on  local  and  civil 
questions;  (b)  Descriptive  themes  or  imaginary 
journeys;  (c)  Themes  on  characters  admired  by 
pupils;  (d)  Imaginary  conversations  between 
historical  characters;  (e)  Description  of  work  in 
other  classes. 

(4)  Sources  of  material  based  upon:  (a)  Topics 
from  recreation;  (b)  Work  in  school  and  out; 
(c)  Observation  of  processes,  scenes,  objects, 
occupations;    (d)  Books;    (e)  Imagination. 

92 


Technical  English. 

1.  Word-building  and  Derivation. 

a.  Prefixes  and  suffixes. 

b.  Latin  and  Greel:  roots. 

c.  Synonyms  and  homonyms. 

2.  Spelling  of  words  used. 

3.  Necessary  punctuation. 

4.  Sentences. 

5.  Clauses. 

6.  Conjunctions  and  prepositions.  v 

7.  Detailed  study  of  verb. 

8.  Mechanics  of  oral  expression. 

a.  Breathing. 

b.  Vocalization. 

c.  Postures  and  gestures. 

d.  Phonetics. 

9.  Activities  in  oral  expression. 

a.  Vocalization  in  unison. 

b.  Vowel  practice. 

c.  Articulation  practice. 

d.  The  speech  defects  of  individuals. 

e.  Oral  Reading  for  proper  grouping  of  words,  etc. 

f.  Memorizing  appropriate  selections  in  prose  and  poetry. 

g.  Oral  composition. 


II.     Literature. 


A.    General  Literature. 

1.  Study  material.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

a.  Poetry:    (American  Anthology.) 
Bryant:   To  a  Waterfowl. 
Lanier:   Chattahoochee. 

Riley:    Green  Fields  and  Running  Brooks;    The  Old 
Swimming  Hole;   Knee-deep  in  June. 
Field:     Christmas    Tales    and    Christmas    Verse;     A 
Little  Book  of  Western  Verse,  Book  II;  A  Little  Book 
of  Profitable  Tales. 

b.  Fiction. 

Irving:   Sketch  Book. 

Hale:   A  Man  Without  a  Country. 

Sweetser:   Ten  Boys  and  Girls  from  Dickens*. 

c.  Dramatizing. 
Merchant  of  Venice. 

d.  Memorizing. 

Prose  and  Poetry.     (Selected.) 

2.  Reading  or  telling  of  stories  by  teacher.     (Selected.) 

3.  Required  Reading. 

Andrews:   The  Perfect  Tribute.     (Lincoln.) 

93 


London:   The  Call  of  the  Wild. 
Montgomery:   Anne  of  Green  Gables. 
Warner:   A  Hunting  of  a  Bear. 
4.    Supplementary  Reading.      Home  Reading.      Read  one  book 
in  list  and  give  oral  report  from  pupil's  own  outline. 
Bullen:   The  Cruise  of  the  Cachalot. 
Burnett:   The  Secret  Garden. 
Clemens:   Prince  and  Pauper. 
Cooper:   The  Deerslayer;  The  Pilot. 
Davis:   Stories  for  Boys. 

De  Amicis:   An  Italian  School  Boy's  Journal.    (Cuore.) 
Dix:   Soldier  Rigdale. 
Doubleday:   Stories  of  Invention. 
Doyle:   Micah  Clarke. 
Duncan:   Adventures  of  Billy  Topsail. 
Eastman:   Indian  Boyhood. 
Eggleston:   Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 
Fouque:   Undine. 
Hale:   A  New  England  Boyhood. 
Halsey:   The  Old  New  York  Frontier. 
King:   Cadet  Boys. 
Lang:   The  Book  of  Romance. 
Larcom:   New  England  Girlhood. 
Laurie:    School  Days  in  Italy;   School  Days  in  France. 
Liljencrantz:   The  Thrall  of  Lief,  the  Lucky. 
Lincoln:   A  Pretty  Tory. 
Montgomery:   Anne  of  Avonlea. 
Morris:   The  Sundering  Flood. 

Parkman:  Montcalm  and  Wolfe;  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 
Pyle:   The  Story  of  King  Arthur. 

Rice:  The  Champions  of  the  Round  Table;  Sir  Launce- 
lot  and  His  Companions;  Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the  Cabbage 
Patch. 

Scott:   The  Talisman. 
Sharp:   A  Watcher  in  the  Woods. 
Warner:   Being  a  Boy. 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.     Required  Reading: 

a.    Fowler:   How  to  Get  and  Keep  a  Job. 

b.  VanderHp:   Business  and  Education. 

c.  Verrill:   Harper's  Book  for  Young  Naturalists. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading.    Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.  Bloomfield:   Vocational  Guidance. 

2.  Drysdale:   Helps  for  Ambitious  Boys. 

3.  Grinnell  and  Swan:   Harper's  Camping  and  Scouting. 

4.  Judson:   Higher  Education  as  a  Training  for  Business. 

5.  Marsden:   The  Young  Man  Entering  Business. 

6.  Verrill:   Harper's  Book  for  Young  Gardeners. 

94 


Grade  VIII-A.  Second  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  IV. 

I.     Composition. 

A.  Constructive  English.  "* 

1.    Form: 

a.    Compositions — Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Narration,  description,  exposition,  argumenta- 
tion, (a)  Short  themes — paragraph  themes  (one 
a  week);  (b)  Long  themes  (one  each  month); 
(c)  Letter-writing:  Notes  of  invitation;  Ap- 
plications for  positions;    (d)  Verse- writing. 

(2)  Topics:  Simple  arguments  on  school  topics; 
How  to  make  things;  How  to  find  things  or  go 
to  various  places;  How  various  contrivances 
work;  Accounts  of  visits  to  factories  and 
museums.  The  aims  are:  Keep  to  the  point; 
Be  courteous;  Clearness  of  expression;  Close 
observation. 

(3)  Sources  of  material:'  Personal  experience;  Ob- 
servation; Literature,  geography,  history,  etc.; 
Manual  Training  and  Household  Arts,  Science; 
Pictures;  Characters  in  book — Outside  of  book; 
Topic  sentences;  Select  sentences  in  a  written 
theme,  etc. 

B.  Technical  English. 

Review — 

Essential  elements  of  a  sentence. 

Clauses. 

Inflection  of  five  of  the  eight  parts  of  speech. 

Spelling  of  words  used. 

Necessary  punctuation. 

Parsing,  analysis,  diagraming. 

Word  study. 

Study  of  Types. 

Memorizing. 

Conversation  groups  (in  Grades  VII,  VIII,  IX). 

Extemporaneous  Speech. 

Formal  Address  or  Oration  (not  in  detail). 

National  and  state  holidays. 

Birthdays  of  poets  and  famous  men. 

Special  occasions,  etc. 
Mechanics  of  oral  expression.     (See  Grade  VIII-B.) 
Activities  in  oral  expression. 

For  general  scope  of  the  work  see  Grade  VIII-B. 


95 


II.     Literature. 

A.  General  Literature. 

1.  Study  material  (select  one  from  each  group). 

a.  Poetry. 

Holmes:    Old  Ironsides,  Last  Leaf,  My  Aunt,  Height 
of  Ridiculous,  The  Boys,  Contentment,  Chambered 
Nautilus,    Broomstick    Train,    Dorothy    Que,    One 
Horse  Shay,  Spectre  Pig,  Oysterman. 
Whittier:  Sriow  Bound.     (Selected.) 
Longfellow:  Evangeline. 

b.  Fiction: 

Macaulay:  Horatius. 

De  Amicis:    Sardinian  Drummer  Boy.     (Appeals.) 
Kipling:     Captains    Courageous.      (Types  of  form, 
color,  sound,  motion,  smell.) 

c.  Dramatization. 

Julius  Caesar. 
Merchant  of  Venice. 

2.  Reading  or  telling  of  stories  by  teacher.     (Selected.) 

3.  Required  Reading. 

a.  Wiggin:   Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm. 

b.  Cooper:  Last  of  the  Mohicans. 

c.  Kipling:   Kidnapped. 

d.  Sweetser:   Ten  Boys  and  Girls  from  Thackeray. 

4.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (Read  and  report 
on  two  other  books  from  Grade  VIII-B  list.) 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

a.  Adams:   Harper's  Electricity  Books  for  Boys. 

b.  Munn  and  Company:   Trade  Marks.     Trade  Names. 

c.  Wooley:   Addison  Brandhurst. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading— Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Bryce:   The  Hindrance  to  Good  Citizenship. 

Call:  Everyday  Living. 

Hubbard:  A  Message  to  Garcia. 

Kelland:   Mark  Tidd  in  the  Back  Woods. 

Matthews:   Getting  On  in  the  World. 

Stockwell:  Essential  Elements  of  Business  Character. 


Grade  IX-B.  Third  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  V. 

I.     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 
1.    Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)    Forms    of    discourse:     Narration,    description, 
exposition,  argumentation:    (a)  Short  themes — 

96 


paragraph  themes  (one  a  week) ;  (b)  Long  themes 
(one  a  month);  (c)  Letter-writing  (attention  to 
substance  as  well  as  to  form) ;    (d)  Verse-writing. 

(2)  Topics:  (a)  Composition:  Definition;  (b)  Letter- 
writing:  Excuses  for  Absence,  Excuses  for 
Tardiness;  (c)  Letters  of  Friendship;  (d)  Letters 
of  Invitation;  (e)  Order  Letters;  (f)  Letters  of 
Application. 

(3)  Sources  of  Material:  Observation;  Experience; 
Books,  Current  Magazines;  Imagination. 

B.    Technical  English. 

1.  Review  of  capitalization  and  necessary  punctuation. 

2.  Diagraming,  parsing,  analysis. 

3.  Sherman  and  Blaisdell  Texts: 

a.    Sherman's  Elements  of  Literature  and  Composition. 

(1)  Words:   Chapters  I-V. 

(2)  Phrases:   Chapters  I X-X. 

(3)  Types:   Chapters  VI-VII-VIII. 

(4)  Appeals:   Chapters  XIV-XVII-XVIII. 

4.  Canby  and  Opdyke:   Elements  of  Composition. 

a.  Composition:   Chapter  I. 

b.  Shaping  the  Material:   Chapter  II. 

c.  The  Sentence:   Chapter  III. 

d.  Capitalizatiori:   Part  III,  section  III. 

e.  Punctuation:   Part  III,  section  IV. 

5.  Oral  English.     (Oral  interpretation.) 

a.  Poetry. 

Longfellow:   The  Builders. 

Holmes:   The  Boys. 

Scott:   Breathes  There  a  Man. 

Wordsworth:   Daffodils;  Cayalier  Tunes. 

Hunt:   Abou  Ben  Adhem. 

b.  Activity  in  oral  expression.     (See  Grade  VIII-B.) 

II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 

1.    Study  Material.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

a.  Poetry. 

Whitman:   My  Captain. 

Keats:   On  First  Looking  into  Chapman's  Homer. 

Scott:  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

b.  Short  Stories. 

Hale:   The  Man  Without  a  Country. 
Brown:   Farmer  Eli's  Vacation. 
Davis:   Gallegher. 

c.  Other  Fiction. 

Blackmore:  Lorna  Doone. 

97 


Poe:   Prose  Tales. 
Scott:   Ivanhoe. 

d.  Drama. 

Shakespeare:    Julius  Caesar;   A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream. 

e.  Dramatization. 

Any  good  Stock  or  Academic  play. 

2.  Required  Reading. 

Dickens:   David  Copperfield. 
Kingsley:  Westward  Ho. 
Kipling:   Kim. 

3.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (Oral  report  on 
two  books  from  pupil's  own  skeleton  outline.) 

a.  Fiction. 

Anonymous:  Arabian  Nights. 

Carroll:   Alice  in  Wonderland. 

Clemens:   Huckleberry  Finn;  Tom  Sawyer. 

Cooper:   Any  novel. 

Crane:   The  Red  Badge  of  Courage. 

Defoe:   Robinson  Crusoe. 

Dickens:     Christmas   Stories;     Great   Expectations; 

Nicholas    Nickleby;     Old    Curiosity    Shop;     Oliver 

Twist. 

Doyle:    Sherlock  Holmes;   The  White  Company. 

Harris:  Uncle  Remus. 

Hawthorne:   Twice  Told  Tales. 

Hughes:   Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 

Irving:   Sketch  Book;  The  Tales  of  a  Traveler. 

Kipling:   Captains  Courageous;  Jungle  Books. 

Lamb:   Tales  from  Shakespeare. 

London:   Call  of  the  Wild. 

Lytton:   The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 

Martin:   Emmy  Lou. 

Ollivant:  Bob,  Son  of  Battle. 

Ouida:  The  Dog  of  Flanders. 

Poe:   The  Gold  Bug. 

Porter:  Freckles. 

Pyle:   Robin  Hood. 

Scott:  Abbot. 

Seton:    Lives   of    the   Hunted;     The   Trail   of   the 

Sandhill  Stag. 

Stevenson:   David  Balfour;  Treasure  Island. 

Swift:   Gulliver's  Travels. 

Verne:    Mysterious  Island  Series;   Round  the  World 

in  80  Days. 

b.  Drama: 

Maeterlinck:  The  Blue  Bird. 


98 


Shakespeare:  As  You  Like  It;  Henry  IV;  Henry  V; 
Julius  Caesar;  King  Lear;  Macbeth;  Merchant  of 
Venice;   Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  Tempest. 

c.  Poetry: 

Coleridge:  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner. 
Homer:   The  Iliad;  The  Odyssey. 
Longfellow:   Collected  Poems. 
Macaulay:  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 
Stevenson:  A  Child's  Garden  of  Verse. 
Whittier:   Poenvs. 

d.  Biography: 

Flynt:  Tramping  With  Tramps. 

e.  Adventure: 

Seton-Thompson:  Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known. 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

a.  Onkin  and  Baker:    Harper's  How  to  Understand  Elec- 
trical Work. 

b.  Parsons:   Choosing  a  Vocation. 

c.  Perkins:  Vocations  for  Trained  Women. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading.    Home  Reading.    (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Manson:   Ready  for  Business. 

Munsterberg:  The  Choice  of  a  Vocation. 

Parsons:   Choosing  a  Vocation. 

Weaver:   Vocations  for  Girls. 

Wingale:   What  Shall  Our  Boys  Do  for  a  Living? 

Hunt:   The  Young  Farmer  and  Things  He  Should  Know. 


Grade  IX-A.  Third  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  VI. 

I.     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 

1.  Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Short  themes — paragraph  themes  (one  a  week.) 

(2)  Long  themes — Exposition  (one  a  month.) 

(3)  Social  Letters. 

(4)  Topics.     (See  Grade  IX-B.) 

(5)  Sources  of  Material.     (See  Grade  VIII-A.) 

2.  Memorizing.     (Oral  English.     Select  two.) 

Longfellow:   Psalm  of  Life. 
Whittier:   Snow  Bound.     (Selected.) 
Holmes:  Old  Ironsides. 
Pee:  The  Raven. 
Whitman:   My  Captain. 

3.  Verse-writing. 

99 


4.    Practical  use  of  books  and  libraries.* 

a.  Card  catalogues: 

(1)  Author  catalogue. 

(2)  Subject  catalogue. 

(3)  Numbering  and  arrangement  of  books. 

(4)  Dewey  decimal  system,  author,  numbers. 

b.  Reference  Librarian — Reference  Room. 

c.  Reserve  Desk. 

d.  Stack  Room. 

e.  Loan  Desk. 
B.    Technical  English. 

1.  Review  Word-structure. 

2.  Necessary  spelling. 

3.  Sherman  and  Blaisdell  Texts: 

a.  Sherman's  Elements: 

(1)  Description  and  Narration.     Chapter  XXX. 

(2)  Word  appeals,  types,  forces.    Chapters  I,  VIII, 
XIV,  XVI. 

(3).  Review  Phrases.     Chapters  IX,  X. 
(4)    Review  Figures.     Chapters  XI,  XIII. 

b.  Blaisdell's  Rhetoric.     Chapters  I-IV. 

c.  Canby  and  Opdyke:   Elements  of  Composition. 

(1)  Description.     Chapter  IX. 

(2)  The  Sentence.    Chapter  III.     (Especially  unity, 
coherence  and  emphasis  in  the  sentence.) 

(3)  The  Paragraph.     Chapter  IV. 

(4)  Letter-writing.     Part  III,  section  I. 
II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 
1.    Study  Material. 

a.  Poetry. 

Browning:   Herve  Riel. 
Scott:  Lady  of  the  Lake. 
Shelly:   To  a  Skylark. 
Emerson:   Concord  Hymn. 
Garland:  The  Wind  in  the  Pines. 

b.  Short  Stories. 

Hawthorne:  Ambitious  Guest. 
O.  Henry:   The  Chaparral  Prince. 
Hale:   Man  without  a  Country. 
Poe:   Purloined  Letter. 

c.  Other  Fiction. 

Eliot:   Silas  Marner. 

Wallace:  Ben  Hur, 

Maclaren:  Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush. 


*See  Hall-Quest's  Supervised  Study,  pp.  174,  175. 

100 


2.  Required  Reading. 

Reade:'  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth. 

Stevenson:   Treasure  Island. 

Chaplin:  Five  Hundred  Dollars  and  Other  New  England 

Stories. 

Parkman:   Oregon  Trail. 

3.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (Oral  Report  on 
two  additional  books  from  Grade  IXtB  list.) 

Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 
1.    Required  Reading. 

Burns:   The  Story  of  our  Great  Inventions. 

Davis:   Motor-Boating  for  Boys. 

Fowler:   How  to  Get  Your  Pay  Raised. 
Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 
Munsterberg:   The  Choice  of  a  Profession. 
Fiske:   Choosing  a  Life  Work. 
Fowler:   Starting  in  Life. 
Kelland:   Mark  Tidd  in  Business. 
Sweetser:   Ten  Great  Adventures;  Book  of  Indian  Braves. 


n.  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Grade  X-B.  Fourth  Year,  First  Semester.  English  VII. 

I.     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 

1.  Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Forms  of  discourse:  Narration,  description, 
exposition,  argumentation;  Short  themes — para- 
graph themes  (one  each  week);  Long  themes 
(one  each  month);  Book  Reports,  Book  Reviews, 
News  stories,  Editorials,  etc. 

(2)  Topics:  The  Organization  of  the  Modern  News- 
paper; The  Art  of  Reporting;  Proof-reading; 
Revision  of  Manuscript;  Biographical  Notices; 
Reporting  Accidents;  Constructive  and  De- 
structive Journalism;  Contracts;  Advertisement 
Writing;  Book  Reviews;  Reporting  Games, 
Speeches;  Dramatic  Notices;  Interviews;  Con- 
crete Exposition;  Exposition  of  Ideas;  Con- 
structive Editorials;    Argumentative  Editorials. 

2.  Sources  of  Material. 

a.    Reading  of: 

(1)  Books,  papers,  Current  Magazines — Literary 
Digest,  Review  of  Reviews,  etc. 

101 


B.    Technical  English. 
1.    Study  material. 

a.  Development  and  intensification  of  the  preceding  year. 

b.  Classification  of  sentences  (rhetorically). 

c.  Sherman,  Blaisdell,  Baldwin,  Canby  and  Opdyke  Texts: 

(1)  Sherman  (for  study  of  Lancelot  and  Elaine): 
Chapters  I-VIII,  XIV-XXI;  Questions,  pp. 
151-153,  162-164,  175-177,  184-187. 

(2)  Blaisdell:     (a)   Word  meanings.   Chapter  VII; 

(b)  Atmosphere,  Chapter  XVI;  (c)  Book 
Reviews,  Chapter  XV;  (d)  Descriptions,  Chapter 
XIII;  (e)  Figures  of  Speech,  Chapter  XXIV; 
(f)  Rhetorical  principles  of:  Unity,  coherence, 
emphasis.  Chapter  XXII. 

(3)  Canby  and  Opdyke:  Elements  of  Composition 
for  Secondary  Schools:  (a)  Narration,  Chapter 
X;     (b)    Description    (review).    Chapter    IX; 

(c)  The  Paragraph  (especially  unity,  coherence, 
emphasis  in  the  Paragraph),  Chapter  IV. 

II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 

1.  Study  Material.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

a.  Poetry. 

Burns:  Bannockburn. 

Keats:   The  Eve  of  St.  Agnus. 

Tennyson:   Enoch  Arden;  Lancelot  and  Elaine. 

b.  Fiction. 

Wallace:  Ben  Hur. 

Shakespeare:   Merchant  of  Venice. 

Maclaren:   Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush. 

c.  Drama. 

Goldsmith:   She  Stoops  to  Conquer  (read  and  tell  the 

story). 

Selected:   Speech  on  Citizenship. 

2.  Required  Reading.     (Select  one  author.) 

Tennyson:    Idylls  of  the  King;   Coming  of  Arthur;   Gareth 
and  Lynette;    The  Holy  Grail;    Passing  of  Arthur;    The 
Lady  of  Shalott. 
Churchill:   Richard  Carvel. 

3.  Dramas  or  Plays. 

Zangwill:   The  Melting  Pot. 
Kenedy:  The  Servant  in  the  House. 

4.  Reading  and  Speaking.     (Once  a  week.) 

5.  Poems  for  Memorizing. 

Kipling:  If. 

Shakespeare:  All  the  World's  a  Stage. 

102 


Sill:   This  I  Beheld  or  Dreamed  It  in  a  Dream. 
Browning:   Incident  oi  the  French  Camp. 

6.  Required  Reading. 

Dickens:   David  Copperfield. 
Barrier  Little  Minister. 
Defoe:   Robinson  Crusoe.    Part  I. 
Clemens:   Tom  Sawyer. 

7.  Supplementary  Reading— Home  Reading.     (Oral  report  on 
two  books  from  pupil's  own  skeleton  outline.) 

a.    Fiction. 

Bachelor:   Dri  and  I. 

Blackmore:   Lorna  Doone. 

Churchill:  Richard  Carvel;  The  Crossing;  The  Crisis. 

Clemens:   Joan  of  Arc. 

Connor:   Glengarry  School  Days;  Black  Rock. 

Dickens:    Pickwick  Papers;  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 

Dumas:    The  Count  of  Monte  Cristo;    The  Three 

Guardsmen. 

Ford:    Janice  Meredith;   The  Hon.  Peter  Sterling. 

Fox:  The  Trail  of  the  Lonesome  Pine. 

Haggard:   King  Solomon's  Mines. 

Lytton:   The  Last  of  the  Barons;  Rienzi. 

Maclaren:  Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush. 

Scott:  Any  Novel. 

Stevenson:    Dr.  Jeykll  and  Mr.  Hyde;    The  Black 

Arrow. 

Stockton:    The  Lady  or  the  Tiger;   Rudder  Grange. 

White:  Blazed  Trail. 

Wister:   The  Virginian. 

b.  Poetry. 

Arnold:   Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

Goldsmith:   The  Deserted  Village. 

Gray:   Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard. 

Scott:    The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel;    Marmion; 

The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Tennyson:    Enoch  Arden;   The  Idylls  of  the  King. 

c.  Biography. 

Brady:   Paul  Jones. 

Macaulay:  Biographical  Essays. 

Nicolay:   Boy's  Life  of  Lincoln. 

Plutarch:  Lives. 

Riis:   The  Making  of  an  American. 

Schurz:   Autobiography;  Life  of  Lincoln. 

South ey:  Life  of  Nelson. 

Washington:  Up  From  Slavery. 


103 


d.  History. 

Parkman:     Montcalm  and  Wolfe;    The  Conspiracy 
of  Pontiac. 

e.  Travel. 

Clemens:   Roughing  It;  Innocents  Abroad. 
Dana:   Two  Years  Before  the  Mast. 
Parkman:   Tha  Oregon  Trail. 
Stevenson:  An  Indian  Voyage, 

f.  Miscellaneous. 

Harrison:   Choice  of  Books. 

Holmes:   Autocrat. 

Palmer:   Self  Cultivation  in  English. 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

Fowler:   Practical  Salesmanship. 
Given:   Making  a  Newspaper. 
Valentine:   The  Beginner  in  Poultry. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading— Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Beverage:  The  Young  Man  and  the  World. 
Dana:   The  Art  of  Newspaper  Making. 
Grayson:   Adventures  in  Contentment. 
Hemstreet:   Reporting  for  the  Newspapers. 
Low:  A  Painter's  Progress. 
Palmer:  The  Teacher. 


Grade  X-A.  Fifth  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  VIIL 

I.     Composition. 

A.  Constructive  English. 

1.  Form: 

a.    Composition:   Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Short  themes:   Paragraph  writing  (one  a  week). 

(2)  Long  themes  (one  a  month). 

(3)  Conversation-writing. 

(4)  Briefs  and  other  outlines. 

(5)  Business  letters  and  telegrams. 

(6)  Advertisements. 
7.    Verse-writing. 

2.  Source  of  Material. 

a.  Experience. 

b.  Observation. 

c.  Reading:   Books,  Papers,  Current  Magazines. 

3.  Topics.     (See  Grade  X-B  list.) 

B.  Technical  English. 

1.    Study  Material.     (Select  one  group  of  books.) 
a.    Sherman  andBlaisdell  Texts: 

104 


(1)  Sherman:  Elements  of  Literature  and  Composi- 
tion; Review  of  Character  and  Mood  appeals, 
Chapters  XIV-XVI;  Study  of  Appeals  of 
Incidents,  Chapter  XX;  Study  of  tone,  quality, 
metre,  and  rhyme,  Chapters  XXII,  XXIV. 

(2)  Blaisdell:    (To  be  selected  as  needed.) 

b.  Canby   and   Opdyke:     Elements   of   Composition   for 
Secondary  Schools. 

(1)  Exposition.     Chapter  VII. 

(2)  Argumentation.     Chapter  VIII. 

(3)  Grammatical  Review.     Part  III,  Sectioun  VIII. 

(4)  Sentence — manipulation.  Clearness  thro  gh  con- 
nectives;  Correct  placing  of  modifiers,  etc. 

c.  Supplementary  books: 

(1)  Palgrave:   Golden  Treasury. 

(2)  Wooley:   Handbook  of  Composition. 

II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 

1.  Study  Material. 

a.  Poetry.     (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

Lowell:  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 
Tennyson:   Enoch  Arden. 
Coleridge:  The  Ancient  Mariner. 
Arnold:   Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

b.  Fiction. 

Doyle:  A  Study  in  Scarlet. 
Blackmore:  Lorna  Doone. 
Dickens:   Tale  of  Two  Cities. 
Barrie:  Little  Minister. 

c.  Plays. 

Maeterlinck:   Blue  Bird, 
Peabody:  The  Piper. 

2.  Required  Reading. 

Scott:   Kenil worth. 

Parkman:   Oregon  Trail. 

Thoreau:   Walden. 

Scott:  Lady  of  the  Lake.     Canto  L    The  Chase, 
d.    Dramatization. 

a.    Any  Standard  or  Academic  Play. 
4.    Supplementary  Reading— Home  Reading.    (See  Grade  X  list.) 
B     Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 
1.    Required  Reading. 

a.  Harris:   Joe,  the  Book  Farmer. 

b.  Shafer:   Don  Cameron— E very-Day  Electricity. 

c.  Verrill:   GasoHne  Engine  Book. 


105 


C.    Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.  Hyde:   Self-measurement. 

2.  Bennett:   How  to  Become  an  Author.     (College.) 

3.  Hodson:   How  to  Become  a  Trained  Nurse. 

4.  Julian:    Making  a  Journalist. 

5.  Low:   A  Painter's  Progress. 

6.  Palmer:   Why  Go  to  College. 


Grade  XI-B.  Seventh  Year,  First  Semester.  English  IX. 

I.     Composition. 

A.  Constructive  English. 

1.  Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Paragraph  writing. 

(2)  Letter-writing. 

(3)  Verse-writing. 

(4)  Conversation  writing. 

(5)  Debates,  Orations. 

(6)  Exposition:    (Outlines  and  themes.) 

(7)  Practical  use  of  book  and  libraries:  (a)  Reference 
books  such  as  the:  Atlas,  Classical  Dictionary, 
Year  Book,  Government  Reports. 

2.  Sources  of  Material.    (Based,  primarily,  on  Investigation  and 
Study.) 

a.  Lincoln  Selections: 

The  Two  Inaugurals.     (Models  for  orations.) 

Gettysburg  Address. 

Last  Public  Address. 

Brief  memoir  or  estimate  of  Lincoln. 

b.  Holmes:     Autocrat    of    Breakfast    Table.      (Assigned 
reading.) 

c.  Andrews:   The  Perfect  Tribute. 

d.  Schurz:  Abraham  Lincoln. 

B.  Technical  English. 

L    Study  Material.     (Select  one  group.) 
a.    Sherman  and  Blaisdell  Texts: 

(1)  Sherman:  Elements  of  Literature;  Exposition, 
Chapter  XXXI;  Review  of  type  forces  and  type 
qualities.  Chapters  VI-VI II;  Review  imaginative 
appeals.  Chapters  XVI-XXI;  Review,  Chap- 
ters I-VIII,  XIV-XXI. 

(2)  Blaisdell:  Forms  of  Discourse,  Rhetoric  pages 
308-326;  Book  Reports,  Rhetoric  pp.  212^219. 

106 


(3)  Canby  and  Opdyke:  Elements  of  Composition 
for  Secondary  Schools;  Argumentation,  Chapter 
VIII;  Exposition,  Chapter  VII;  The  Paragraph, 
Chapter  IV;   The  Word,  Chapter  VI. 

II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 

1.  Study.     (Material  for  class  work) : 

a.  Poetry.     (Select  as  needed.) 

(1)  Browning:  How  They  Brought  the  Good  News; 
Rabbi  Ben  Ezra;  Cavalier  Tunes;  The  Lost 
Leader;  Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad;  Home 
Thoughts  from  the  Sea;  Incident  of  the  French 
Camp;  Herve  Riel;  My  Last  Duchess;  Up 
At  a  Villa;   Down  in  the  City;   The  Pied  Piper. 

(2)  Markham:  The  Man  With  the  Hoe,  and  other 
poems. 

b.  Fiction. 

Dickens:   David  Copperfield. 
Eliot:    Mill  on  the  Floss. 

c.  Drama : 

Shakespeare:  Macbeth  (intensive  study) ;  She  Stoops 
to  Conquer. 

d.  Speeches  on  Citizenship.     (Selected.) 

e.  Other  prose  from  best  Current  Magazines. 

2.  Poems  for  Memorizing.     (Select  two.) 

a.  Kipling:   When  Earth's  Last  Picture  Is  Painted. 

b.  Lowell:   The  Present  Crisis. 

c.  Milton:   L' Allegro. 

d.  Shakespeare:  Hamlet's  Soliloquy — "To  be  or  not  to  be." 

e.  Wordsworth:   Resolution  and  Independence. 

3.  Rapid  Survey  of  English  Authors  as  follows  (Long's  English 
Literature):  Addison,  Austen,  Bacon,  Browning,  Carlyle, 
Chaucer,  Dickens,  Dryden,  Eliot,  Goldsmith,  Johnston, 
Kipling,  Macaulay,  Milton,  Pope,  Ruskin,  Scott,  Shakespeare, 
Spencer,  Swift,  Tennyson,  Thackeray. 

4.  Literary  Periods.     (Intensive  rather  than  extensive.) 

5.  American  Literature.  Study  of  American  Authors.   (Selected.) 

a.    Texts: 

Halleck:   American  Literature. 

Newcomer:   American  Literature. 

Tappan:   England's  and  America's  Literature. 

6.  Dramatization.     (Selected.) 

7.  Required  Reading.     (Select  two.) 

Allen:   Old  King  Solomon  of  Kentucky. 

Bunyan:  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

Cody:   Selections  from  World's  Greatest  Short  Stories. 

107 


Homer:    Iliad  (translated  by  Bryant  or  Pope);    Odyssey 
(translated  by  Bryant,  Pope,  or  Palmer). 
Jewett:   Country  Doctor. 

Shakespeare:    Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  Twelfth  Night. 
8.    Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (To  be  used  at 
the  teacher's  discretion.) 

a.  Lyric  Poetry. 

(1)  Field:  Little  Book  of  Western  Verse.    (Book  IL) 

(2)  Riley:    Old  Fashioned  Rpses;    Poems  Here  at 
Home. 

b.  Essays. 

(1)  Burroughs:  Winter  Sunshine;  Signs  and  Seasons. 

(2)  Crothers:   Gentle  Reader. 

c.  Fiction. 

Austen:   Pride  and  Prejudice. 
Barrie:   The  Little  Minister;  Sentimental  Tommy. 
Bennett:   Master  Skylark. 
Black:   Judith  Shakespeare. 
Ebers:   Egyptian  Princess. 
•    EHot:   Silas  Marner. 
Gaskell:   Cranford. 
Hugo:  Les  Miserables;  Ninety-three. 
Johnston:   To  Have  and  To  Hold. 
Kingsley:   Hereward  the  Wake. 
Kipling:    Punch  of  Pork's  Hill;    The  Day's  Work; 
Rewards  and  Fairies. 
Mitchell:   Hugh  Wynne. 
More:  Jessamy  Bride. 
Page:   Red  Rock. 
Parker:  The  Seats  of  the  Mighty. 
Sienkiewicz:   With  Fire  and  Sword;  Deluge. 
Tarkington:   The  Gentleman  from  Indiana. 
Wallace:  A  Fair  God;  Ben  Hur. 

d.  Drama.     (Selected.) 

e.  Biography. 

Boswell:  Johnson. 

Macaulay:  Literary  Biographies. 

Trevelyan:  Life  of  Macaulay. 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

a.  Ashmore:  The  Business  Girl  in  Every  Phase  of  Her  Life. 

b.  Butler:    Training  of  Saleswomen.     (Chapter  on  Sales- 
women in  Mercantile  Stores.) 

c.  Sloan:    How  to  Become  a  Successful  Electrician. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Hilty:   Happiness — Essays  on  the  Meaning  of  Life. 
Marsden:  Pushing  to  the  Front. 

108 


Bailey:   The  Country  Life  Movement. 
McCullough:   Engineering  as  a  Vocation. 
Williams:   Victories  of  an  Engineer. 


Grade  XI-A.  Seventh  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  X. 

I.     Composition. 

A.  Constructive  English. 

1.  Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  written. 

(1)  Review.     (Topics  1-6  in  English  IX.) 

(2)  Parliamentary  usage. 

(3)  Related  Letters. 

(4)  Short  Articles. 

(5)  Editorials  and  descriptions. 

(6)  Essays.  \ 

(7)  Exposition. 

2.  Sources  of  Material.     (Select  two.) 

a.    Based,  primarily,  on  investigation  and  study  of: 

(1)  Washington's  Farewell  Address  and  Webster's 
First  Bunker  Hill  Oration. 

(2)  Macaulay's  Speech  on  Copyright  and  Lincoln's 
Speech  at  Cooper  Union. 

(3)  Emerson:  American  Scholar. 

(4)  Book  Reports,  Book  Reviews. 

(5)  Model  Essays  from  Standard  Periodicals. 

B.  Technical  English. 

1.  Study  Material.     (Select  one  group.) 

a.    Sherman  and  Blaisdell  Texts. 

(1)  Sherman:  Exposition  and  Argument — Elements, 
Chapter  XXXI. 

(2)  Blaisdell:   Book  Reports,  pp.  212-219. 

2.  Elements  of  Composition  for  Secondary  Schools.     Canby  and 
Opdyke. 

a.  Shaping  the  material.     Chapter  II. 

b.  The  Whole  Composition.     Chapter  V. 

c.  The  Story.     Chapter  XI. 

d.  Figures  of  Speech.    Part  III,  Section  V. 

e.  Prosody.    Part  III,  Section  VI. 
II.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 
1.    Study  Material. 

a.    Poetry.      (Select  one  from  each  group.) 

(1)  Short  poems.  (See  Elements,  pp.  221,  263,  227.) 
Browning:  The  Boy  and  the  Angel;  Count 
Gismond. 

109 


(2)  Minor  poems.    Milton:  L'Allegro;  II  Penseroso; 
Comus. 

(3)  Nineteenth  Century  and  Contemporary  Lyrics. 

b.  Fiction.     (Select  one.) 

Hawthorne:     House  of  Seven  Gables;    The  Scarlet 
Letter;  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse. 

c.  Drama. 

Shakespeare:   Hamlet,  Coriolanus. 

d.  Burke:   Speech  on  Conciliation. 

e.  Other  Prose  from  Current  Magazines. 

2.  English  Literature.     (See  Grade  XI-B.) 

3.  American  Literature.     (See  Grade  XI-B.) 

4.  Required  Reading. 

Thackeray:   Henry  Esmond. 

Swift:   Gulliver's  Travels. 

Addison  and  Steele:   Sir  Roger  de  C overly 's  Papers. 

Thackeray:  Vanity  Fair. 

Dickens:   Dombey  and  Son. 

Austen:   Pride  and  Prejudice. 

5.  Supplementary  Reading.    Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  XI-B 
list.) 

B.  Vocational  Literature. 

1.    Required  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

a.  Bessey,  Bruner,  Swezey:    New  Elementary  Agriculture . 

b.  Hood:   Practical  School  and  Home  Gardens. 

c.  Thwing:   College  Training  and  the  Business  Man. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading. 

Coe:   Heroes  of  Every  Day  Life. 

Hale:   Lights  of  Two  Centuries. 

McCabe:   The  Struggles  and  Trials  of  Self-made  Men. 

Morris:   Heroes  of  Progress  in  America. 

Parton:   Captains  of  Industry. 

Stoddard:   Men  of  Business. 

Stowe:   The  Lives  and  Deeds  of  Self-made  Men. 


Grade  XII-B.  Eighth  Year,  First  Semester.  English  XI. 

L     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 
1.    Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  Written.     Follow  up  pupil's 
special  interest  as  to  either  the: 


Novel. 
Short  Story. 
Verse-writing. 


110 


Debating. 

Commercial  correspondence. 

Newspaper-work.     (Writing.) 

Advertising. 

Scientific  description. 

Single  author. 

Dramatization. 

2.  Sources  of  Material. 

Addison  and  Steele:   Essays. 

Lamb:   Essays. 

Macaulay:   On  Johnson. 

Emerson:   Fortune  of  the  Republic,  etc. 

Current  Literature,  including  magazines,  newspapers. 

3.  Memorizing. 

Scenes  from  Shakespeare. 
Lines  from  Milton. 
Lines  from  Pope. 
Lines  from  Gray. 
Lines  from  Goldsmith. 
Lines  from  Burns. 
Lines  from  Wordsworth. 
B.    Technical  English.     (Choose  one  group.) 

1.  Sherman  and  Blaisdell  Texts: 

a.  Sherman:     Elements  of  Literature  and  Composition" 
Chapters  XXX,  XXXI,  XXXIIL 

b.  Blaisdell:  Composition — Rhetoric.  Chapters  XIX,  XX. 

2.  Canby  and  Opdyke:   Review  Elements  of  Composition. 

H.     Literature. 

A.    General  Literature. 
1.    Study  Material. 

a.  Poetry.     (Select  four.) 

Burns:    To  a  Mouse;   John  Anderson;   For  A'  That 
and  A'  That;   To  a  Mountain  Daisy. 
Dryden:    Alexander's  Feast;   Power  of  Music. 
Keats:  Ode  to  a  Nightingale;  Ode  to  a  Grecian  Urn. 
Longfellow:   Hymn  to  the  Night. 
Lowell:   The  Lost  Child. 
Moore:   Those  Evening  Bells. 
Palgrave:   Songs  from  Books  I  and  11. 
Shelly:   To  a  Skylark;  Ode  to  the  West  Wind. 
Tennyson:   The  Brook. 
Riley:   An  Old  Play-Out  Song. 
Wordsworth:   Ode  to  Duty. 

b.  Drama.     (Selected.) 

(1)    Hamlet.     (Intensive  study.) 

c.  The  Novel.     (Prose  Fiction.) 

Ill 


(1)  Its  development. 

(2)  Names  of  Novels.  (Intensive  study  of  one.) 
Dickens:  Tale  of  Two  Cities;  Goldsmith:  Vicar 
of  Wakefield;  Hawthorne:  House  of  Seven 
Gables;  Scott:  Ivanhoe;  Thackeray:  Henry 
Esmond. 

2.  Required  Reading.    (Select  four  for  comparison  and  pleasure.) 

Austen:   Pride  and  Prejudice. 
Blackmore:   Lorna  Doone. 
Bunyan:   Pilgrim's  Progress. 
Eliot:   Mill  on  the  Floss. 
Howells:   Rise  of  Silas  Lapham. 
Hugo:  Les  Miserables. 
Kingsley:   Westward  Ho. 

3.  Memorizing.     (Select  one.) 

Choate:   Death  of  Webster. 
Everett:   Character  of  Washington. 
Ireland:   America  a  World  Power. 
Lincoln:   Address  at  Gettysburg  Cemetery. 
Northrop:  A  Manly  Fellow. 
Phillips:   Toussaint  L'Ouverture. 
Washington:   The  Uplifting  of  the  Negro  Race. 
Webster:   Crime  its  Own  Detector. 

4.  English  Literature.     (Long's — as  needed.) 

5.  American  Literature.     (See  Grade  X.) 

6.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (To  be  used  at 
teacher's  discretion.) 

a.  Essays. 

Emerson:   Compensation;  Books. 

Carlyle:  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship;  Essay  on  Burns. 

b.  Poetry. 

Mansfield:  The  Story  of  a  Round  House. 
Milton:   Paradise  Lost. 
Noyes:   Tales  of  Mermaid  Tavern. 
Swinburne:  Atalanta  in  Calydon. 
Theocritus:   Lang's  Translation. 

c.  Drama.     (Selected.) 

d.  Fiction. 

Barrie:   Margaret  Ogilvy. 

Duncan:   Doctor  Luke  of  the  Labrador. 

Eliot:   Adam  Bede;  The  Mill  on  the  Floss;  Romola. 

Ebers:  An  Egyptian  Princess. 

Howells:   The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham. 

Hughes:   Tom  Brown  at  Oxford. 

Jackson:   Ramona. 

James:   On  Life's  Ideals. 


112 


Johnston:  Stover  at  Yale. 

Meadowcroft:   The  Boy's  Life  of  Edison. 

Thackeray:   Henry  Esmond;  The  Newcomes. 

Thompson:   Shelley. 

Wells:   The  War  of  the  Worlds. 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

1.    Required  Reading. 

Bennett:   Journalism  for  Women. 
McCullough:   Engineering  as  a  Vocation. 
Verrill:   Harper's  Aircraft  Book. 

C.  Supplementary  Reading — Home  Reading.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Ely:   The  Social  Law  of  Service. 

Clopper:   Child  Labor  in  the  City  Streets. 

Dodge:   Survey  of  the  Occupations  Open  to  the  Girl  of  14  to  16. 

Munsterberg:   Psychology  and  Industrial  Efficiency. 

MacLean:   Industrial  Training  for  Women. 

Van  Dyke:  The  Spirit  of  America. 


Grade  XII-A.  Eighth  Year,  Second  Semester.  English  XII. 

I.     Composition. 

A.    Constructive  English. 

1.  Form: 

a.    Composition — Oral  and  Written.   A  finished  product  of: 

(1)  Essay. 

(2)  Oration. 

(3)  Poem. 

(4)  Short  Story. 

(5)  Book  Review.     Book  Report. 
.-       (6)    Forms  of  Discourse. 

2.  Sources  of  Material. 

a.  Personal  experience. 

b.  Observation. 

c.  Books. 

d.  Current  Literature. 

3.  Technical  English. 

a.  Sherman  and  Blaisdell  Texts: 

(1)  Sherman:  Elements  of  Composition,  Chapters 
XXX,  XXXI;  Review  the  four  forms  of  Dis- 
course, etc. 

(2)  Blaisdell:    Composition  Rhetoric.     (Selected.) 

b.  Canby    and     Opdyke:      Elements    of    Composition. 
(Review.) 

c.  Wooley:    Handbook  of  Composition.     (Supplement.) 

113 


II.     Literature. 

A.  General  Literature. 

1.  Study  Material. 

a.  Poetry. 

Milton:   L' Allegro;  II  Penseroso;  Lycidas. 
Bunyan:   Pilgrim's  Progress.     Book  I. 
Chaucer:   Prologue. 

b.  Fiction.     (Selected.) 

c.  Essay.     (Review.) 

d.  Drama. 

2.  American  and  English  Literature — Historical  Study. 

Halleck:   American  Literature. 

Long:  English  Literature. 

Sherman:   Elements  of  Literature  and  Composition. 

Tappan :   England's  and  America's  Literature. 

3.  Memorizing. 

Antony:   Oration  over  Caesar's  Body. 

Goethe:   Rest. 

Holmes:  The  Last  Leaf. 

Ingalls:  Opportunity. 

Kipling:   'Eathen. 

Tennyson:   Crossing  the  Bar;  Trust. 

4.  The  Short  Story. 

a.  Art  of  the  story. 

b.  The  short  story  in  Literature. 

c.  Reading  and  study  of  representative  stories. 

Addison:   Constantia  and  Theodosia. 

Anderson:   The  Steadfast  Tin  Soldier. 

Balzac:   A  Passion  in  the  Desert. 

Boccaccio:   Patient  Griselda. 

Dickens:   A  Child's  Dream  of  a  Star. 

Hawthorne:   The  Great  Stone  Face. 

Irving:   Rip  Van  Winkle. 

Kipling:   The  Man  Who  Would  Be  King. 

Poe:  The  Gold  Bug;  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

Stevenson :   Markheim. 

5.  Required  Reading.     (Select  two.) 

Churchill:   The  Crisis. 

Gaskell:   Cranford. 

Lytton:  Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 

Page:  Red  Rock. 

Parker:   The  Oregon  Trail. 

6.  Supplementary  Reading.  Home  Reading.   (See  Grade  XII-B.) 

B.  Vocational  Literature.     (See  Grade  VII-B.) 

Bennett:   How  to  Become  an  Author. 

Fowler:    Starting  in  Life— What  Each  Calling  Offers  Ambitious 

Men  and  Boys. 

114 


Verrill:   Harper's  Wireless  Book^ 
Supplementary  Literature— Home  Reading.  (See  Grade  VII-B.) 
Addams:   Newer  Ideals  of  Peace. 
Hadley:   Standards  of  Public  Morality. 
Jordon:   The  Nation's  Need  of  Men. 
Lindsey:   The  Beast  and  the  Jungle. 
Root:   The  Citizen's  Part  in  Government. 


115 


Part  V. 
CONTRIBUTIONS, 


CONTRIBUTION  I. 

SPECIALIZED  TEACHING  OF  LITERATURE. 

Of  course,  in  discussing  questions  of  this  kind,  it  is  always  right  to  assume 
the  obvious.  Yet  it  often  happens  that  what  one  assumes  as  obvious,  another 
will  reject  as  unobvious,  or  perhaps  deny  as  even  undemonstrable.  It  then 
may  be  well  to  compare  what  we  severally  are  premising,  and  what  we  are 
postulating  as  the  means  and  as  the  ends  of  literary  culture. 

The  writer  of  these  lines  assumes  as  obvious  that  the  study  of  literature 
should  mean  the  study  of  literature,  of  the  thing  itself  and  not  of  facts  or 
observations  about  literature.  It  is  assumed,  also,  that  by  literature  we  mean 
aesthetic  compositions,  or  such  in  both  prose  and  poetry  as  involve  ultimate 
spiritual  truth  or  beauty.  It  is  assumed,  moreover,  that  the  end  in  the  study 
of  these  is,  and  must  be  always,  the  spiritual  discernment  and  appropriation 
of  such  ultimate  truth  or  beauty. 

All  students  have  capacity  to  discern  aesthetic  excellences,  but  by  no  means 
in  like  degree.  Most  pupils  -in  secondary  schools  and  even  colleges  disuse 
the  sensibilities  in  reading,  and,  if  possible,  evade  occasions  of  exercising 
them  in  outside  life.  They  have  become  so  adjusted  to  the  world  of  fact  that 
they  find  it  irksome  to  deal  much  with  the  world  of  sentiment  and  beauty.  It 
will  not  do  to  assume  that  a  class  made  up  of  pupils  practically  out  of  sym- 
pathy with  the  aesthetic  or  spiritual  side  of  life  can  or  will  read  such  literature 
as  "The  Princess"  otherwise  than  intellectually.  If  we  attempt  to  discuss 
with  them  its  quality,  they  will  not  understand  us,  but  will  perhaps  believe  we 
are  ourselves  deceived  about  what  we  say  we  find,  and  the  experience  we 
derive.  That  is  beginning  at  the  top.  It  is  better  to  begin,  as  we  do  in  other 
subjects,  at  the  bottom.  A  good  way  to  do  that  is  to  set  the  class  at  distin- 
guishing by  aesthetic  judgment  those  words  that  have  poetic,  emotional  quality 
from  those  that  have  not.  That  will  at  once  arouse  imagination.  Then  let 
the  phrases  be  carefully  examined  similarly;  and  when  poetic  phrases  are 
distinguished  clearly  from  prosaic  let  the  figures  be  taken  in  the  same  way. 
I  have  known  so  little  as  two  weeks'  study  of  this  kind  to  open  minds  to 
poetry  that  had  been  insensible  to  it  before. 

Let  the  teacher  devise  better  means  if  he  can,  but  he  must  begin  down 
at  the  level  of  his  pupil's  present  capacity  of  aesthetic  appropriation.  When 
by  whatsoever  exercise  or  method,  the  student  finds  it  no  longer  possible  to 
read  past  or  over  poetic  terms,  phrases,  and  figures,  he  may  rise  to  the  theme. 
Let  him  learn  what  the  theme  or  message  is  as  a  source  of  power  in  literature, 
from  some  familiar  poem  like  'How  They  Brought  the  Good  News'.  When 
he  sees  that  the  ultimate  idea  or  beauty  here  is  faith,  sympathy,  show  him 
how  it  may  be  correlated  into  the  ultimate  thought  or  truth,  that  supreme 
faith  and  sympathy  may  be  evinced  below  the  human  sphere,  and  even  im- 
pressed into  the  service  of  society.     With  this  object  lesson,  send  him  away 


119 


to  find  some  poem  that  he  can  interpret  for  himself.  In  a  later  exercise  teach 
him  how  to  identify,  and  exhaust  in  imagination,  the  character  signs  and  hints 
by  which,  as  in  the  poem  just  named,  the  author  idealizes  to  us  his  hero. 

"Should  methods  pursued  in  the  study  of  science  be  adopted  in  literary 
study  and  criticism?"  I  answer  yes,  if  the  end  is  still  literary  and  aesthetic. 
We  must  beware  of  confusing  the  methods  and  the  aim  of  science.  When  a 
student  feels  the  power  of  a  masterpiece,  he  may  well  enough  be  set  to  study 
out  its  history,  the  time  and  the  place  of  its  composition,  and  all  other  cir- 
cumstances that  go  to  make  appropriation  and  enjoyment  of  it  more  complete. 
He  may  study  endlessly,  besides,  in  themes  and  modes  and  treatment  and 
technique,  and  the  evolution  of  these;  for  they  all  have  a  history.  The  point 
is,  interest  must  precede.  These  things  are  not  to  be  done  to  create  interest 
in  literature, — more  than  Hebrew  and  Exegesis  are  to  be  studied  in  order  to 
make  men  wish  to  enter  the  ministry.  Philologic  and  linguistic  study  should 
be  encouraged,  but  in  its  own  right,  not  as  a  substitute  for  true  literary  work. 

If  anybody  objects  that  the  system  here  outlined  is  too  scientific,  or  too 
unscientific,  I  have  no  argument  with  him.  The  question  of  how  to  teach 
literature  is  no  longer  a  question  of  theories,  but  results.  With  unspecialized 
teaching,  ninety  students — with  expert  instruction,  one  hundred— ^out  of  an 
average  hundred  are  being  made  enthusiastic  readers  of  the  best  literature  in 
many  schools.  (34) 


(34)  Sherman,  pp.  381-383. 


120 


CONTRIBUTION  II. 

TALKS  ON  TEACHING  LITERATURE— THE  CONDITIONS. 

A  careful  and  intelligent  study  of  masterpieces  of  prose  or  verse,  the 
teacher  soon  perceives,  must  develop  greatly  the  student's  sense  of  the  value 
of  words.  This  is  not  the  highest  function  of  this  work,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
one  to  be  despised.  Literary  study  affords  opportunities  for  training  of  this 
sort  which  are  not  found  elsewhere;  and  a  sensitiveness  to  word-values  is  with 
a  child  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

Children  too  often  acquire  and  adults  follow  the  habit  of  accepting  words 
instead  of  ideas.  A  genuine  appreciation  of  the  worth  of  language  is  after  all 
the  chief  outward  sign  of  distinction  between  the  wise  man  and  the  dullard. 
One  is  content  to  receive  speech  as  sterling  coin,  and  the  other  perceives  that 
words  are  but  counters.  If  students  could  but  appreciate  the  difference 
between  apprehending  and  comprehending  what  they  are  taught,  between 
learning  words  and  assimilating  ideas,  the  intellectual  millenium  would  be  at 
hand.  Children  need  to  learn  that  the  sentence  is  after  all  only  the  envelope, 
only  the  vehicle  for  the  thought.  Everybody  agrees  to  this  theoretically,  but 
practically  the  fact  is  generally  ignored.  The  child  is  father  to  the  man  in 
nothing  else  more  surely  than  in  the  trait  of  accepting  in  perfect  good  faith 
empty  words  as  complete  and  satisfactory  in  themselves.  The  habit  of  being 
content  with  phrases  once  bred  into  a  child  can  be  eradicated  by  nothing  short 
of  severe  intellectual  surgery. 

To  say  that  words  are  received  as  sufficient  in  themselves  and  not  as  con- 
veying ideas  sounds  like  a  paradox;  but  there  are  few  of  us  who  may  not  at 
once  make  a  personal  application  and  find  an  illustration  in  the  common 
phrases  and  formulas  of  our  life.  Perhaps  none  of  us  are  free  from  the  fault 
of  sometimes  substituting  empty  phrases  for  vital  rules  of  conduct.  The  most 
simple  and  the  most  tremendous  facts  of  human  life  are  often  known  only 
as  lifeless  statements  rather  than  realized  as  vibrant  truths.  With  children 
the  language  of  text-book  or  classroom  is  so  likely  to  be  repeated  by  rote  and 
remembered  mechanically  that  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
can  hardly  overcome  the  evil.  Force  the  boy  who  on  the  college  entrance 
examination  paper  writes  fluently  that  "Milton  is  the  poet  of  sublimity"  to 
try  to  define,  even  to  himself,  what  the  statement  means,  and  the  result  is 
confusion.  He  meant  nothing.  He  had  the  words,  but  they  had  never  con- 
veyed to  him  a  thought.  Language  should  be  the  servant  of  the  mind,  but 
never  was  servant  that  so  constantly  and  so  successfully  usurped  the  place 
of  master. 

Children  must  be  taught,  and  taught  not  simply  by  precept  but  by  ex- 
perience, to  realize  that  the  value  of  the  word  lies  solely  in  its  efficiency  as  a 
vehicle  of  thought.  They  must  learn  to  appreciate  as  well  as  to  know  mechan- 
ically that  language  is  to  be  estimated  by  its  effect  in  communicating  the  idea, 
and  that  to  be  satisfied  with  words  for  themselves  is  obvious  folly.     For  en- 

-  121 


forcing  this  fact  literature  is  especially  valuable.  It  is  hardly  possible  in  even 
the  most  superficial  work  on  a  play  of  Shakespeare,  for  instance,  for  the  reader 
to  fail  to  perceive  how  the  idea  burns  through  the  word,  how  wide  the  difference 
between  the  mere  apprehension  of  the  language  and  the  comprehension  of  the 
poet's  meaning.  In  the  study  of  great  poetry  the  impossibility  of  resting 
satisfied  with  anything  short  of  the  ideas  is  so  strongly  brought  out  that  it 
cannot  be  ignored  or  forgotten;  and  in  this  way  pupils  are  impressed  with 
the  value  of  words. 

This  sensitiveness  to  the  value  of  words  in  general  is  closely  coupled  with  an 
appreciation  of  the  force  of  words  in  particular,  of  what  may  be  called  word- 
values.  The  power  of  appreciating  that  a  word  is  merely  a  messenger  bringing 
an  idea,  is  naturally  connected  with  the  abihty  to  distinguish  with  exactness  the 
nature  and  the  value  of  the  thought  which  the  messenger  presents.  To  feel 
the  need  of  knowing  clearly  and  surely  the  thought  expressed  inevitably  leads 
to  precision  and  delicacy  in  distinguishing  the  significance  and  force  of  language. 
When  once  the  child  appreciates  the  difference  between  the  accepting  of  what 
he  reads  vaguely  or  mechanically  and  the  getting  from  it  its  full  meaning,  he 
is  eager  to  have  it  all;  he  finds  delight  in  the  intellectual  exercise  of  searching 
out  each  hidden  meaning  and  the  sense  of  possession  which  belongs  to  achieving 
the  thought  of  the  master.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  our  pupils  shall  be 
able  to  receive  in  its  full  richness  the  deepest  thought  of  the  poets,  but  they 
none  the  less  find  delight  in  possessing  it  to  the  extent  of  their  ability.  The 
point  is  too  obvious  to  need  expansion;  but  every  instructor  will  recognize 
its  great  importance. 

Obvious  as  is  this  importance  of  the  sense  of  the  value  of  words  and  a 
sensitiveness  to  word-values,  it  is  not  infrequently  overlooked.  Teachers  see 
the  need  of  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  terms  and  phrases  in  a  particular 
selection  without  stopping  to  think  of  the  prime  value  of  the  principle  involved, 
or  indeed  that  a  general  principle  is  involved  at  all.  Still  more  often  they 
fail  to  perceive  all  that  logically  follows.  In  exact,  vital  realization  of  the 
full  force  of  language  lies  the  secret  of  sharing  the  wisdom  of  the  ages.  If 
students  can  be  trained  to  penetrate  through  the  word  of  the  printed  page  to 
the  thought,  they  are  brought  into  communication  with  the  master-minds  of 
the  race.  It  is  not  learning  to  read  in  the  common,  primary  acceptation  of 
the  term  that  opens  for  the  young  the  thought  of  the  race;  but  learning  to 
read  in  the  higher  and  deeper  sense  of  receiving  the  words  as  a  symbol  behind 
and  beyond  which  the  thought  lies  concealed  from  the  ordinary  and  super- 
ficial readers. 

Most  of  all  is  it  the  business  of  the  young  to  learn  about  life.  Whatever 
does  not  tend,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  make  the  child  better  acquainted  with 
the  world  he  has  come  into,  with  how  he  must  and  how  he  should  bear  himself 
under  its  complex  conditions,  is  of  small  value  as  far  as  education  goes.  Of 
rules  for  conduct  he  is  given  plenty  as  to  matters  of  morality  and  religion. 
Moral  laws  and  religious  precepts  are  good,  and  could  they  accomplish  all 
that  is  sometimes  expected  of  them,  life  would  quickly  be  a  different  matter, 
and  teachers  would  find  themselves  living  in  an  earthly  paradise.  Unhappily 
these  excellent  maxims  effect  in  actual  life  far  less  than  is  desired.    Not  in- 

122 


frequently  the  urchin  who  has  been  stuffed  with  moral  admonitions  as  a  doll 
with  sawdust  shows  in  his  conduct  no  regard  for  them  other  than  a  fine  zeal 
in  scorning  them.  Children  are  seldom  much  affected  by  explicit  directions 
in  regard  to  conduct.  They  must  be  reached  by  indirection,  and  they  are 
moulded  less  by  what  they  recognize  as  intentionally  wise  views  of  life  than  by 
those  which  they  receive  unconsciously.  The  more  just  these  unrecognized 
ideas  of  themselves  and  of  the  world  are,  the  greater  is  the  chance  that  they 
will  develop  a  character  well  balanced  and  well  adjusted  to  the  conditions  of 
human  life. 

Children  live  in  a  world  largely  made  up  of  halfperceptions,  of  misunder- 
standings, and  of  dreams;  a  world  pathetically  full  of  guesses.  They  must 
depend  largely  upon  appearances,  and  constantly  confound  what  seems  with 
what  really  is.  They  learn  but  slowly,  however,  to  shape  their  beliefs  or 
their  emotions  by  conventionality.  They  do  not  easily  acquire  the  vice  of 
accepting  shams  because  some  authority  has  endorsed  these.  All  of  us  are 
likely  to  have  had  queerly  uncomfortable  moments  when  we  have  found 
ourselves  confounded  and  reproved  by  the  unflinching  honesty  of  the  child; 
and  we  have  been  forced  to  confess,  at  least  to  ourselves,  that  much  of  our 
admiration  is  mere  affectation,  many  of  our  professions  unadulterated  truck- 
ling to  some  authority  in  which  after  all  we  have  little  real  faith.  Children 
are  naturally  too  unsophisticated  for  self-deception  of  this  sort.  They  con- 
found substance  and  shadow,  but  they  do  it  in  good  faith  and  with  no  affecta- 
tions. They  are  therefore  at  the  place  where  they  most  need  sound  and 
sure  help  to  apprehend  and  to  comprehend  those  things  which  their  elders 
call  the  realities  of  life. 

What  human  nature  and  human  life  are  like  is  learned  most  quickly  and 
most  surely  from  the  best  literature.  The  outward,  the  evident  conditions  of 
society  and  of  humanity  may  perhaps  be  best  obtained  by  children  from  the 
events  of  everyday  existence;  but  in  all  that  goes  deeper  the  wisdom  of  great 
writers  is  the  surest  guide. 

On  the  face  of  it  such  a  proposition  may  not  seem  self-evident,  and  to  not 
a  few  teachers  it  is  likely  to  appear  a  little  absurd.  Children,  it  is  evident, 
learn  the  realities  of  life  by  living.  They  perceive  physical  truth  by  the 
persuasive  force  of  actual  experience:  by  tumbling  down  and  bumping  their 
precious  noses;  by  unmistakably  impressive  contact  with  the  fist  of  a  pug- 
nacious school-fellow;  by  being  hungry  or  uncomfortably  stuffed  with  Thanks- 
giving turkey;  by  heat  and  by  cold,  by  sweets  or  by  sours,  by  hardness  or  by 
softness.  Certainly  through  such  means  as  these  the  child  gams  knowledge 
and  develops  mentally;  but  the  process  is  inevitably  slow.  Most  of  all  is 
the  growth  in  the  youthful  mind  of  general  deductions  and  the  perception  of 
underlying  principles  extremely  gradual.  He  does  not  learn  quickly  enough 
that  certain  lines  of  conduct  are  likely  to  lead  to  unfortunate  ends.  Even 
when  this  is  grasped,  he  has  to  come  to  appreciate  what  human  laws  underlie 
the  whole  matter;  nor  is  he  in  the  least  likely  to  realize  them  so  fully  as  to 
shape  by  them  his  conduct  in  the  steadily  more  and  more  complicated  affairs 
of  Ufe.  (3) 


(3)  Bates,  pp.  15^20. 

123 


CONTRIBUTION  III 

"HOW  TO  TEACH  ENGLISH  CLASSICS." 

Essential  Principles  in  Teaching  English  ' 

The  problems  of  teaching  English  literature  to  pupils  in  the  secondary 
schools  is  not  to  be  considered  an  easy  task.  To  approach  the  work  with  the 
misconception  that  it  need  be  fraught  with  little  effort  or  anxiety  is  a  sure 
method  of  steering  directly  toward  disaster.  But  to  say  that  it  is  difficult, 
and  to  urge  that  it  demands  painstaking  labor,  is  not  to  stigmatize  it.  Rather 
because  of  these  inherent  hindrances  we  can  assert  that  it  is  supremely  interest- 
ing, and  that  the  task  can  be  made  to  yield  genuine  pleasure  and  constant 
enlightenment.  To  discuss  in  a  general  way  how  joyful  and  intelligent  interest 
may  be  made  to  pervade  the  difficult  task  of  teaching  English  literature  to 
pupils  of  high  school  age  is  the  object  of  this  Introduction.  This  discussion 
will  be  adequate  only  when,  together,  we  have  answered  the  general  query, 
*  What  are  the  essential  principles  which  should  guide  instruction  in  English 
literature?"  To  this  query  there  are  two  general  replies,  and  each  reply  will 
allow  detailed  comment. 

I.  The  pupil  must  be  made  to  apprehend  the  objective  meaning  of  the 
message. 

II.  He  must  be  made  to  comprehend  the  subjective  meaning  of  the 
message. 

In.  saying  that  the  pupil  must  be  made  to  apprehend  the  objective  sig- 
nificance of  the  message,  I  mean  simply  and  solely  that  he  must  understand 
the  message  of  the  text;  he  must  see  what  facts  the  writer  is  trying  to  impart; 
he  must  translate  into  mental  concept  these  arbitrary  signs  which  we  call 
words. 

"But  this",  the  inexperienced  teacher  may  say,  "why,  this  is  easy;  the 
pupil  can  pronounce  the  words,  and  if  he  can  pronounce  them,  surely  the 
words  instinctively  carry  with  their  pronunciation   the  intended  meaning." 

But  could  that  inexperienced  teacher  have  a  photograph  of  the  mental 
picture  which  a  selected  bit  of  literature  has  imprinted  upon  the  several  minds 
in  the  pupils  before  him,  he  would  be  appalled.  And  the  most  appalling 
feature  of  the  situation  would  not  be  the  array  of  false  concepts,  but  it  would 
be  the  array  of  hazy  concepts;  or,  in  many  cases,  the  absolute  lack  of  any 
concept  whatever.  Let  us  play  a  little  longer  with  this  photographic  trope. 
This  inexperienced  teacher  of  literature  is  much  like  the  very  amateur  photog- 
rapher. Our  neophyte  artist  has  read  his  book  of  instructions  carefully; 
he  now  thinks  he  knows  the  mechanics  of  his  instrument,  and  he  takes  it  out 
into  the  landscape,  sets  up  his  tripod,  and  fires  his  several  shots.     Everything 


iThe  substance  of  this  Introduction,  with  only  slight  changes  in  phrasing,  was  embodied 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  English  Round  Table  of  the  National  Educational  Association  at  its 
meeting  in  Boston,  in  July,  1910. 

124 


apparently  works  well,  and  he  goes  to  his  dark  room  in  high  expectancy. 
He  thinks  he  knows  what  each  plate  will  reveal.  He  eagerly  anticipates" 
the  beautiful  cloud  effects  in  plate  number  one;  the  lights  and  shadows 
that  the  willows  cast  in  beautiful  intermingling  over  the  brooklet  in 
plate  number  two;  and  the  splendid  contour  of  the  tree-bestrewn  and 
rock-laden  mountain  in  plate  number  three.  But,  alas,  under  the  weird 
light  of  his  ruby  lamp  the  new  chemicals  in  their  dish  of  shining  japan  reveal 
no  such  aesthetic  delights.  The  outlines  refuse  to  stand  out  in  bold  relief; 
rude  blotches  mar  the  cumulus  clouds;  the  willows  are  covered  with  spiteful 
air-globules  of  varied  diameters;  the  mountain  is  a  dismal  dead  blank.  And 
the  ambitious  artist,  when  he  leaves  the  dark  room,  goes  to  the  library,  picks 
up  his  Coleridge,  and  wearily  sits  down  to  read  that  splendid  definition  of 
dejection: 

A  grief  without  a  pang,  void,  dark,  and  drear, 

A  stifled,  drowsy,  unimpassioned  grief. 

Which  finds  no  natural  outlet,  no  relief, 
In  word,  or  sigh,  or  tear. 

Our  photographic  figure,  however,  does  not  walk  on  all  fours.  The  tyro 
in  English  teaching  is  not  so  effectively  saddened;  for  he,  working  with 
sensitive  minds  rather  than  with  sensitive  plates,  has  no  such  positive  and 
enlightening  way  of  knowing  of  his  failure.  Accordingly  he  is  too  often 
content  to  go  ahead,  until  finally  by  some  hook  or  crook  he  is  rudely  shaken 
into  the  conviction  that  by  his  inane  teaching  the  pupils  are  having  all  their 
literary  nerves  devitalized.  Instead  of  these  neurones  being  set  atingle  by 
the  suggested  color-concepts  falling  on  fair  Madeline's  fair  breast  in  the  crypt 
of  the  moonlit  church — instead  of  a  brilliant  recreating  of  the  notes  of  the 
pealing  organ  and  the  full-voiced  choir  which  dissolved  the  devotee  of  mel- 
ancholy into  ecstasies  and  brought  all  heaven  before  his  eyes — instead  of 
these  highly  desirable  and  complacently  assumed  conceptions,  we  have,  alas, 
a  dim  and  misty  grayness  shadowing  all.  Not  in  every  case,  let  me  hasten 
to  say.  We  who  teach  have  had  the  exquisite  pleasure  of  hearing  the  voice 
tremble  and  of  seeing  the  eye  glisten  its  appreciation  of  sensitive  effects,  and 
in  those  moments  we  have  thanked  the  gods — and  not  amiss  —that  they  had 
allowed  us  to  play  a  part  in  leading  a  young  companion  to  a  plane  where  his 
horizon  of  beauty  was  suddenly  and  richly  expanded,  and  then  at  a  glance 
toward  the  stolid  and  the  unaroused,  our  thanks  retreat  to  seek  the  ebon 
shades  of  a  dark  Cimmerian  desert. 

But  merely  to  point  out  defects  in  teaching  is  not  to  eradicate  them. 
The  physician  after  he  has  made  his  diagnosis  must  try  to  effect  a  cure.  What, 
we  may  ask,  is  the  cure  for  frowsy  habits  of  reading?  How  can  the  amateur 
teacher  of  English  become  a  professional  expert? 

The  teacher  must  first  convince  his  slipshod  readers  that  their  reading 
is  slipshod.  He  must  make  them  realize  that  true  reading  involves  the  re- 
creation in  the  reader's  mind  and  heart  of  the  essential  concepts  and  the 
essential  emotions  which  dictated  the  master's  writing.  The  mere  mechanical 
pronunciation  of  words  as  an  end  in  itself  the  true  reader  will  gradually  learn 

125 


to  spurn;  the  revisualizing  of  concepts  and  the  revitalizing  of  emotions  he 
will  learn  instinctively  to  demand.  Along  with  this  will  come  the  conviction 
that  literature  cannot  be  effectively  studied  while  the  pupil  reclines  on  a 
soporific  couch,  or  lolls  luxuriously  in  a  Morris  chair.  For  most  of  us  the 
study  of  literature  demands  the  posture  of  a  straight-backed  stool.  But 
what  specific  pedagogical  effort  will  establish  the  conviction  that  words  must 
be  vitalized,  that  sentences  and  paragraphs  must  be  transfused  with  the 
glory  and  the  strength  of  imagination. 

As  a  mere  device  try  this:  Read  to  your  pupils — or  have  the  pupils  read 
to  themselves — a  stanza  of  poetry,  or  a  paragraph  of  prose;  then  immediately 
demand  that  books  be  closed.  Open  a  fusilade  of  questions.  What  pictures, 
class,  have  you  in  your  mind?  What  senses  are  appealed  to?  Sight?  Sound? 
Feeling?  Odor?  Taste?  Is  there  any  sensation  of  movement?  Is  this  upward? 
Downward?  Straight  forward?  Crooked?  Zigzag?  Winding?  Are  there  any 
words  which  refuse  to  yield  a  definite  meaning?  If  so,  why?  What  is  the 
strongest  appeal  made  to  your  imagination? 

Let  us  take  a  concrete  case  from  the  Passing  of  Arthur  and  see  what  sort 
of  questions  and  comments  will  create  concepts,  vivify  language,  and  arouse 
emotions. 

Then  saw  they  how  there  hove  a  dusky  barge, 

Dark  as  a  funeral  scarf  from  stem  to  stern, 

Beneath  them;  and  descenting  they  were  ware 

That  all  the  decks  were  dense  with  stately  forms, 

Black-stoled,  black-hooded,  like  a  dream — by  these 

Three  queens  with  crowns  of  gold — and  from  them  rose 

A  cry  that  shiver'd  to  the  tingling  stars. 

And,  as  it  were  one  voice,  an  agony 

Or  lamentation,  like  a  wind  that  shrills 

All  night  in  a  waste  land,  where  no  one  comes. 

Or  hath  come,  since  the  making  of  the  world. 

Then  murmur'd  Arthur,  "Place  me  in  the  barge," 
So  to  the  barge  they  came.     There  those  three  queens 
Put  forth  their  hands,  and  took  the  King,  and  wept. 
But  she  that  rose  the  tallest  of  them  all 
And  fairest  laid  his  head  upon  her  lap. 
And  loosed  the  shatter'd  casque,  and  chafed  his  hands, 
And  caird  him  by  his  name,  complaining  loud. 
And  dropping  bitter  tears  against  a  brow 
Striped  with  dark  blood;  for  all  his  face  was  white 
And  colorless,  and  like  the  wither' d  moon 
Smote  by  the  fresh  beam  of  the  springing  east; 
And  all  his  greaves  and  cuisses  dash'd  with  drops 
Of  onset;  and  the  light  and  lustrous  curls — 
That  made  his  forehead  like  a  rising  sun 
High  from  the  dais-throne — where  parch'd  with  dust, 
Or,  clotted  into  points  and  hanging  loose, 
Mixt  with  the  knightly  growth  that  fringed  his  lips.  ♦ 

126 


So  like  a  shatter'd  column  lay  the  King; 
Not  like  th'at  Arthur  who,  with  lance  in  rest, 
From  spur  to  plume  a  star  of  tournament, 
Shot  thro'  the  lists  at  Camelot,  and  charged 
Before  the  eyes  of  ladies  and  of  kings. ^ 

Immediately  after  the  passage  is  read  let  all  books  be  closed.  Some  pupil 
may  first  be  called  upon  to  describe  the  picture  which  was  in  Tennyson's  mind. 
Omitted  details  may  then  be  supplied  by  the  class.  Or  perhaps  the  teacher 
will  prefer  to  test  the  pupils  by  asking  questions  that  will  at  once  bring  out 
certain  details, — such,  for  example,  as  the  following, — many  of  them  ex- 
tremely simple: 

What  color  is  the  barge?  Where  are  Arthur  and  Bedivere  when  the  barge 
comes  up?  What  is  your  idea  of  these  " black-stoled,  black-hooded"  figures? 
What  gender  are  they?  What  is  the  significance  of  the  phrase  "like  a  dream"? 
What  is  the  antecedent  of  them  in  the  phrase,  "and  from  them  rose  a  cry"? 
Can  your  imagination  recreate  this  sound?  Concentrate  your  mind  on  the 
phrase,  "Shiver'd  to  the  tingling  stars".  Read  the  next  lines  carefully  and 
see  if  your  idea  of  the  cry  is  changed.  How  do  you  imagine  Arthur  is  taken 
to  the  barge?  Why  did  the  queen  weep?  How  do  you  suppose  the  casque 
was  unloosed?  What  senses  are  appealed  to  in  the  expression,  "and  chaffed 
his  hands"?  Why  is  the  epithet  "dark"  used  to  describe  the  blood?  Why 
not  bright?  What  simile  helps  to  intensify  our  conception  of  the  whiteness  of 
Arthur's  face?  "And  all  his  greaves  and  cuisses  dash'd  with  drops  of  onset" — 
explain  each  detail  in  the  sentence  after  imagining  the  whole.  How  did  the 
"light  and  lustrous  curls"  make  his  forehead  like  a  rising  sun  high  from  dias- 
throne?  Get  the  full  significance  of  the  words  "clotted  into  points."  Do 
you  know  the  meaning  of  the  expression,  "lance  in  rest"?  Study  the  contrast 
between  the  appearance  of  Arthur  as  he  lies  upon  the  barge  and  as  he  formerly 
appeared  in  the  tournaments.  Now  re-read  the  passage.  Doesn't  it  seem 
more  definite,  more  vivid,  more  pulsating  than  it  did  6n  first  reading?  Do 
the  details  not  stand  out  in  clearer  outline?  Don't  you  see  the  figures  as 
definite  personalities?  Don't  you  hear  the  sounds  which  rang  in  Tennyson^s 
ears  when  he  wrote  the  passage? 

You  will  from  these  questions  readily  perceive  that  the  design  is  to  generate 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  essential  picture  which  was  in  the  poet's  mind. 
In  other  words,  the  questions  emphasize  the  value  of  re-creating  the  sensory 
image — the  concrete  images  which  appeal  to  the  five  senses. 

Now  we  must  remember  that  the  concrete  image  is  the  basis  of  all  sensory 
imagery,  for  sensory  imagery  means  simply  and  solely  the  concrete  impressions 
that  strike  the  senses,— sight,  hearing,  feeling,  smell,  and  taste.  When  we 
remember  that  originally  all  language  was  pictorial,  and  that  the  modern 
civilized  child  cares  little  for  the  unillustrated  book,  and  that  even  we  who 
are  more  mature  smile  approvingly  when  we  learn  that  the  lecture  we  are  to 
attend  is  to  be  illuminated  with  the  stereopticon— when  we  remember  all  this, 
we  begin  to  have  an  idea  of  what  an  important  part  these  concrete,  visual 
images  play  in  our  daily  life. 

^Tennyson's  Poetical  Works,  Cambridge  Edition,  p.  448,  lines  361-393. 

127 


When  we  apply  our  study  of  sensory  imagery  to  the  interpretation  of 
literature,  it  means  that  we  are  not  getting  the  exact  picture  that  was  in  the 
author's  mind  unless  we  know  the  exact  details — real  or  imaginary — that 
were  in  the  author's  mind.  Now  for  the  purpose  of  sympathetic  reading  it  is 
of  course  not  necessary  that  the  exact  image  originally  in  the  poet's  mind  be 
re-created, — the  essential  thing  is  that  the  reader  study  the  particular  passage 
he  is  reading  with  the  idea  of  securing  as  nearly  as  possible  the  writer's  point 
of  view.  Then  by  the  proper  arrangement  and  massing  of  details,  the  alert, 
sensitive  reader — providing  his  experience  be  sufficient — can  create  the 
adequate  image  and  come  into  sympathy  with  the  author. 

But  in  all  our  teaching  we  are  too  prone  to  forget  that  the  experience 
of  our  pupils  is  severely  limited.  The  trouble  with  them  and  with  ourselves 
is  just  this, — we  have  not  seen  enough.  Or  if  we  have  seen  enough,  we  have 
not  observed  closely  enough.  Recently  in  my  work  with  a  class  of  seniors 
jn  the  high  school  we  came  to  this  passage  in  Milton's  L' Allegro: 

And  he,  by  the  friar's  lantern  led. 
Tells  how  the  drudging  goblin  sweat 
To  earn  his  cream-bowl!  duly  set. 
When  in  one  night,  ere  glimpse  of  morn. 
His  shadowy  flail  had  threshed  the  corn 
That  ten  day-laborers  could  not  end. 

When  the  class  was  questioned  concerning  the  line,  "His  shadowy  flail 
had  threshed  the  corn,"  it  developed  that  only  four  in  a  class  of  twenty-four 
had  any  definite  idea  of  the  picture  that  must  have  been  in  the  poet's  mind, 
most  of  them  having  never  seen  a  flail  or  a  threshing  floor.  I  do  not  mention 
this  as  a  surprising  incident;  I  mention  it  because  it  is  worth  while  to  remember 
constantly  that  the  experience  of  the  city  child  is  widely  different  from  the 
experience  of  the  country  child,  and  that  the  spirit  of  the  present  generation 
varies  decidedly  from  that  of  our  grandfathers. 

The  solution  here,  I  believe,  is  the  same  as  in  the  realm  of  practical 
ethics, — the  instillment  in  the  individual  mind  of  the  necessity  of  a  wise 
unselfishness,  the  partial  effacement  of  the  individual  egoism — a  liberal  Cath- 
olicism. Applying  the  dictum  to  ourselves  as  readers,  wq  must  learn  to  feel 
how  extremely  narrow  has  been  the  experience  which  has  come  to  each  one 
of  us.  We  may  have  never  seen  the  magnolia's  bloom  or  heard  the  ominous 
soughing  of  the  whispering  pines;  we  have  never  been  on  the  equator  where 
darkness  comes  at  a  single  stride  when  the  sun's  rim  dips.  But  if  in  reading 
imagery  that  comprehends  unexperienced  phenomena  we  project  ourselves 
in  the  direction  of  the  poet's  thought,  and  sensitively  adjust  our  vision  to  his, 
we  can,  without  sharing  his  exact  experience,  enter  sympathetically  into  his 
pictures  and  his  sensations.  If  this  were  not  so  Byron  never  would  have 
popularized  for  an  English  public  those  opening  lines  of  The  Bride  of  Abydos 
so  rich  in  oriental  imagery: 

Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 
Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime, 
Where  the  rage  of  the  vulture,  the  love  of  the  turtle, 

128 


Now  melt  into  sorrow,  now  madded  to  crime? 

Know  ye  the  land  of  the  cedar  and  vine, 

Where  the  flowers  ever  blossom,  the  beams  ever  shine; 

Where  the  light  wings  of  Zephyr,  oppress' d  with  perfume, 

,Wax  faint  o'er  the  gardens  of  Gul  in  her  bloom; 

Where  the  citron  and  olive  are  fairest  of  fruit. 

And  the  voice  of  the  nightingale  never  is  mute; 

Where  the  tints  of  the  earth,  and  the  hues  of  the  sky, 

In  color  though  varied,  in  beauty  may  vie, 

And  the  purple  of  Ocean  is  deepest  in  dye; 

Where  the  virgins  are  soft  as  the  roses  they  twine, 

And  all,  save  the  spirit  of  man,  is  divine? 

'T  is  the  clime  of  the  East;  'tis  the  land  of  the  sun — 

Can  he  smile  on  such  deeds  as  his  children  have  done? 

Oh!  wild  as  the  accents  of  lovers'  farewell 

Are  the  hearts  which  they  hear,  and  the  tales  which  they  tell. 

Now  the  details  here  enumerated  may  not  be  a  part  of  the  reader's  ex- 
perience, but  a  willingness  to  become  catholic,  and  a  wisely  energized  projection 
will  make  the  passage  vital.  This  vitality,  let  me  insist,  cannot  be  adequately 
secured  without  an  ability  to  re-create  these  sensory  images — these  appeals 
to  the  sense  of  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  smelling,  and  tasting.  Because  the 
visual  and  the  auditory  images  are  so  common  in  literature,  and  because 
they  are  so  graphically  seen  in  the  passages  previously  quoted  from  The  Passing 
of  Arthur  and  The  Bride  of  Abydos,  we  need  not  pause  to  elucidate  them  further. 
We  may,  however,  dwell  a  little  while  on  the  appeals  made  in  literature  to  those 
sense  organs  of  lesser  note, — smell,  taste,  and  feeling. 

One  passage  of  Shakespeare's — the  speech  of  Lady  Macbeth  in  the  sleep- 
walking scene — is  one  of  the  best  illustrations  in  all  literature  of  the  effective 
use  of  the  sense  of  smell.  Verplanck,  after  mentioning  the  fact  that  the  more 
agreeable  associations  of  this  sense  are  often  used  for  poetic  effect,  adds, 
"But  the  smell  has  never  been  successfully  used  as  a  means  of  impressing  the 
imagination  with  terror,  pity,  or  any  deeper  emotions,  except  in  this  dreadful 
sleep-walking  scene  of  the  guilty  Queen,  and  in  one  paralleled  scene  of  the 
Greek  drama,  as  widely  terrible  as  this.  It  is  that  passage  of  the  Agamemnon 
of  Aeschylus,  where  the  captive  prophetess,  Cassandra,  wrapt  in  visionary 
inspiration,  scents  first  the  smell  of  blood,  and  then  the  vapors  of  the  tomb 
breathing  from  the  palace  of  Atrides,  as  ominous  of  his  approaching  murder." 

As  an  example  of  the  agreeable  sensations  of  odor  I  may  quote  frpm 
King  James  version  of  Solomon's  Song,  iii,  6: — "Who  is  this  that  cometh  out 
of  the  wilderness  like  pillars  of  smoke,  perfumed  with  myrrh  and  frankincense, 
with  all  powders  of  the  merchant?" 

All  of  you  will  recall  the  famous  scene  when  Jacob,  pretending  to  be  Esau, 
goes  to  his  father;  "and  his  father  Isaac  said  unto  him.  Come  near  now  and 
kiss  me,  my  son.  And  he  came  near,  and  kissed  him;  and  he  smelled  of  his 
raiment,  and  blessed  him,  and  said,  See  the  smell  of  my  son  is  as  the  smell 
of  a  field  which  the  Lord  hath  blessed." 


129 


Keats  in  Lamia  has  this  suggestive  simile: 

Like  the  hid  scent  in  an  unbudded  rose, 
and  Milton  in  Paradise  Lost  speaks  of  the 

Groves  whose  rich  trees  wept  odorous  gum  and  balm. 
I   will   cite  one  more  odor  image, — this  from  Shakespeare,  Henry  IV ^ 
Hotspur,  speaking  of  a  fop  who  came  up  to  him  at  the  close  of  battle  says: 
He  was  perfumed  like  a  milliner; 
And  'twixt  his  finger  and  his  thumb  he  held 
A  pouncet-box,  which  ever  and  anon 
He  gave  his  nose  and  took  't  away  again; 
*  *  *  and  still  he  smil'd  and  talk'd, 
And  as  the  soldiers  bore  dead  bodies  by. 
He  called  them  untaught  knaves,  unmannerly. 
To  bring  a  slovenly  unhandsome  corse 
Betwixt  the  wind  and  his  nobility. 
Closely  connected  with  the  sense  of  smell  is  the  sense  of  taste.     Milton 
describing  paradise  (Book  IV,  327  ff.)  speaks  of  Adam  and  Eve: 
They  sat  them  down;  and,  after  no  more  toil 
Of  their  sweet  gardening  labour  than  sufficed 
To  recommend  cool  Zephyr,  and  make  ease 
More  easy,  wholesome  thirst  and  appetite 
More  grateful,  to  their  supper-fruits  they  fell — 
Nectarine  fruits,  which  the  compliant  boughs 
Yielded  them,  sidelong  as  they  sat  reclining 
On  the  soft  downy  bank  damasked  with  flowers. 
The  savory  pulp  they  chew,  and  in  the  rind, 
Stillas  they  thirsted,  scoop  the  brimming  stream. 
In  that  remarkable  conversation  between  Eve  and  her  tempter,  in  the 
ninth  book  of  Paradise  Lost,  Satan  describes  his  own  sensations  when  he  first 
came  to  the  tree  of  knowledge: 

*  *  *  on  a  day,  roving  the  fields,  I  chanced 
A  goodly  tree  far  distant  to  behold, 
Loaden  with  fruit  of  fairest  colours  mixed. 
Ruddy  and  gold.     I  nearer  drew  to  gaze; 
When  from  the  boughs  a  savoury  odor  blown. 
Grateful  to  appetite,  more  pleased  my  sense 
Than  smell  of  sweetest  fennel,  or  the  teats 
Of  ewe  or  goat  dropping  with  milk  at  even, 
Unsucked  of  lamb  or  kid,  that  tend  their  play. 
To  satisfy  the  sharp  desire  I  had 
Of  tasting  those  fair  Apples,  I  resolved 
Not  to  defer;  hunger  and  thirst  at  once, 
Powerful  persuaders,  quickened  at  the  scent 

Of  that  alluring  fruit,  urged  me  so  keen. 

******** 

Amid  the  tree  now  got,  where  plenty  hung 
130 


Tempting  so  high,  to  pluck  and  eat  my  fill 
I  spared  not;  for  such  pleasure  till  that  hour 
At  feed  or  fountain  never  had  I  found. 
Sated  at  length,  ere  long  I  might  perceive 
Strange  alteration  in  me.  *  *  * 
You  will  readily  recall  that  exquisite  scene  in  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  where  the  beguiled  Titania  is  seeking  to  administer  to  the  wants  of 
her  adored  Bottom,  who  bears  the  Ass's    head.     Listen   to   Titania   as  she 
urges  him  to  name  his  desire: 

Titania.     Or  say,  sweet  Love,  what  thou  desirest  to  eat. 
Bottom.     Truly  a  peck  of  provender;   I  could  munch  your  good  dry  oats. 
Methinks  I  have  a  great  desire  to  a  bottle  of  hay;   good  hay,  sweet  hay,  hath 
no  fellow. 

Titania.     I  have  a  venturous  fairy  that  shall  seek 

The  squirrel's  hoard,  and  fetch  thee  new  nuts. 
Bottom.     I  had  rather  have  a  handful  or  two  of  dried  peas. 
Such  thoughts  as  these  doubtless  set  the  donkey's  salivary  gland  a-working' 
Let  us  see  what  Keats's  description  of  the  actions  of  Madeline's  lover  on  the 
eve  of  St.  Agnes  will  do  for  us: 

And  still  she  slept  an  azure-lidded  sleep. 
In  blanched  linen,  smooth  and  lavender'd 
While  he  from  forth  the  closet  brought  a  heap 
Of  candied  apple,  quince,  and  plum,  and  gourd; 
With  jellies  smoother  than  the  creamy  curd. 
And  lucent  syrups,  tinct  with  cinnamon; 
Manna  and  dates  in  argosy  transferr'd 
From  Fez;  and  spiced  dainties,  every  one, 
From  silken  Samarcand  to  cedar'd  Lebanon. 

When  we  come  to  a  consideration  of  touch  imagery  we  find  it  to  include 
sensations  of  movement,  muscular  pressure,  and  temperature.  The  exhilarat- 
ing movement  of  a  fast-plying  ship,  the  grasp  of  the  hand,  the  sense  of  warmth 
and  cold, — all  these  are  freely  employed  in  literature.  Perhaps  in  some 
cases  they  have  been  too  freely  employed.  I  have  a  friend  who  has  cared 
nothing  for  Keats  since  he  noted  the  poet's  allusion  to  kisses  as  slippery 
blisses. 

Now  among  all  the  touch  images  in  literature  I  know  of  none  that  makes 
more  delicately  sensuous  appeal  than  the  one  used  by  Rossetti  in  The  Blessed 
Damosel.  You  will  all  recall  the  picture  of  the  maiden  leaning  over  the  bar 
of  heaven.  To  this  visual  image  the  poet  adds  details  beautifully  illustrative 
of  the  tactile  sense. 

And  still  she  bowed  herself  and  stooped 

Out  of  the  circling  charm; 

Until  her  bosom  must  have  made 

The  bar  she  leaned  on  warm. 

And  the  lilies  lay  as  if  asleep 

Upon  her  bended  arm. 

131 


We  must  not  assume,  however,  that  the  pupil's  apperception  of  sensory 
images  as  these — their  analysis  and  their  labeling — is  the  sine  qua  non  of 
English  teaching.  There  should  be  merely  enough  of  this  to  arouse  the  inert 
and  to  stimulate  the  curious.  To  many  these  concepts  will  of  course  come 
without  the  teacher's  aid,  and  we  must  be  careful  that  students  of  quick 
insight  be  not  satiated  with  the  mere  routine  of  analysis. 

There  are  two  or  three  other  practices  corollary  to  the  visualizing  process, 
which  are  vital  to  the  apprehension  of  the  objective  meaning  in  literature, 
the  pedagogical  significance  of  which  we  may  now  briefly  examine. 

Among  the  most  valuable  of  these  practices  which  an  English  teacher 
may  employ  is  the  illumination  of  the  abstract  by  concrete  illustrations. 
Take,  for  example,  that  well-known  couplet  from  Locksley  Hall: 

Love  took  up  the  harp  of  Life,  and  smote  on  all  the  chords  with  might; 
Smote  the  chord  of  Self,  that,  trembHng,  past  in  music  out  of  sight. 

In  elaborating  the  meaning  of  these  lines  which  show  the  power  of  love 
in  effacing  self,  the  teacher  should  draw  upon  the  great  realm  of  life  and  story, 
and  tell — or  have  his  students  tell — of  some  great  sacrifice  which  a  mother 
has  made  for  a  son,  a  wife  for  a  husband,  or  a  sweetheart  for  her  lover.  Let 
the  narrator  bring  forward  in  its  detailed  concreteness  that  splendid  immolat- 
ing spirit  of  Sydney  Carton— that  greatest  of  all  characters  in  the  greatest  of 
Dickens's  novels.  Carton's  love  for  Lucie  Manette  was  so  supremely  great 
that  he  would  not  even  offer  himself  in  marriage,  for  he  knew  too  well  that 
his  dissolute,  impractical  nature  was  illsuited  to  the  office  of  husband.  But 
he  bided  his  time  in  pitiable  isolation  of  spirit,  faithful  always  to  that  early 
promise  that  he  would  willingly  make  any  sacrifice  to  keep  her,  or  any  dear 
to  her,  safe  from  any  evil  or  any  peril.  And  when,  in  that  strange  and  intense 
situation  in  the  prison  of  the  Conciergerie,  when  he  found  that  it  was  possible 
for  him,  by  a  vicarious  sacrifice,  to  liberate  the  husband  of  her  whom  he  loved 
so  unselfishly,  then  willingly  he  laid  down  his  life  in  order  that  Charles  Darnay 
might  be  saved  to  Lucie  and  to  Lucie's  children.  With  the  example  of  this 
sacrifice  fresh  before  us,  shall  we  not  revert  with  renewed  interest  to  the  ab- 
straction of  the  poet,  and  read  with  keener  delight  the  words  which  a  concrete 
example  has  clarified?  Try  it  now  in  your  own  instance  as  you  re-read  the 
couplet: 

Love  took  up  the  harp  of  Life,  and  smote  on  all  the  chords  with  might; 

Smote  the  chord  of  Self,  that,  trembling,  past  in  music  out  of  sight. 

The  student  should  be  trained  to  see  the  concreteness  in  the  midst  of  ail 
abstractions.  Or,  failing  in  this,  he  should  definitely  recognize  the  fact  that 
the  passage  has  not  yielded  the  message;  and  if  he  ends  his  study  then,  he 
should  be  conscious  of  his  failure, — he  should  not  be  content  with  dim  and 
hazy  notions. 

Another  valuable  means  of  enabling  a  pupil  to  catch  the  objective  meaning 
of  a  passage  in  literature  is  that  of  oral  reading.  Oral  reading  is  nearly  akin 
to  those  earlier  and  more  natural  conditions  of  literary  communication  when 
bards  and  minstrels  were  the  habitual  purveyors  of  literature.     Homer  and 

132 


Beowulf  and  the  Nibelungenlied  were  recited  long  before  they  were  crystalized 
into  their  present  arbitrary  forms.  Even  Coleridge's  Christahel  was  generally 
known  in  England  long  before  it  was  published.  And  yet  school  principals 
in  recent  years  have  sometimes  complained  because  they  have  discovered 
their  teachers  reading  aloud  to  the  classes.  And  many  superintendents 
employ  college  graduates  to  teach  English  without  thinking  to  question  the 
applicant's  power  in  the  oral  interpretation  of  literature.  I  know  some 
stammerers  who  are  trying  to  teach  English,  but  I  know  of  no  club-footed 
masters  who  try  to  give  dancing  lessons. 

Finally,  the  message  of  the  text — its  objective  significance — cannot  be 
understood  without  understanding  the  meaning  of  words  and  the  references. 
This  conquest  will  always  be  a  portion  of  the  work  fraught  with  great  difficulty. 
If  we  are  to  progress  in  our  education,  these  words  and  references  will  not 
come  without  physical  and  mental  effort.  They  often  demand  a  trip  down- 
stairs to  the  dictionary  or  to  the  encyclopedia.  Oftentimes  they  will  invoke 
the  reading  of  other  literary  selections.  What  they  most  insistently  urge  is 
intelligent  effort  toward  the  comprehension  of  their  application  in  a  particular 
case.  In  this  it  often  happens  that  the  reference  books  give  little  aid;  we 
must  rely  upon  a  concentration  that  will  yield  its  natural  mental  product. 
I  remember  distinctly  my  first  experience  with  the  opening  lines  of  Lowell's 
Cathedral: 

Far  through  the  memory  shines  a  happy  day,     . 
Cloudless  of  care,  downshod  to  every  sense. 
And  simply  perfect  from  its  own  resource. 

The  phrase  down-shod  proved  recalcitrant;  it  meant  nothing.  I  re-read  the 
passage,  and  still  the  meaning  was  obscure.  A  fellow  teacher  of  English 
chanced  to  call  upon  me  in  the  midst  of  my  effort,  and  I  eagerly  sought  his  aid. 
After  some  moments  of  intense  study  he  admitted  that  the  phrase  completely 
baffled  him,  and  reluctantly  we  abandoned  the  task  of  interpretation.  When 
he  had  gone,  however,  I  seated  myself  in  my  stiffest-backed  chair,  and  centered 
my  closest  attention  upon  that  defying  phrase — down-shod  to  every  sense. 
Suddenly  it  flashed  i^s  meaning  upon  me, — shod  with  feathery  down,  hence  soft 
and  yielding— responsive.  And  then  I  turned  about  and  heaped  a  bitter 
malediction  upon  my  stupidity.  I  have  been  somewhat  mollified  since  by 
seeing  my  friends  puzzle  over  the  phrase,  but  I  had  learned  my  lesson.  It  is 
this:  The  meaning  in  a  given  message  is  usually  clear  if  we  vouchsafe  to  it  its 
deserved  measure  of  patience  and  concentration.  And  this  lesson  we  should 
continually  teach  to  our  pupils. 

And  now  together  I  think  we  are  agreed  on  one  answer  to  this  query 
concerning  the  essential  principles  which  should  guide  our  instruction  in 
English  literature.  In  our  first  reply— /Tie  pupil  must  be  made  to  apprehend  the 
objective  meaning  of  the  message — we  emphasize  the  importance  of  an  imaginative 
translation  of  words  into  concepts.  By  insisting  upon  the  definite  re-creation 
of  those  images  which  appeal  to  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  odor,  and  taste,  we 
insure  a  sympathetic  interpretation  which  mere  pronunciation  of  words  does 
not  necessarily   convey.     Aside  from  questions  designed  to  re-create  these 

133 


sensory  images,  we  insist  upon  concrete  examples  to  illustrate  the  abstract* 
upon  expressive  oral  reading,  and  upon  such  a  conscientious  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary and  encyclopedia  as  will  aid  in  vitalizing  the  obscure.  But  necessary 
to  the  full  enjoyment  and  the  full  comprehension  of  literature  there  must  be 
a  concurrent  reaction  which  the  second  reply  suggests. 

You  will  recall  the  phrasing  of  the  second  reply.  The  reading  must  com- 
prehend the  subjective  meaning  of  the  message.  And  just  what  do  I  mean  by 
this?  I  mean  that  there  shall  be  some  appreciable  reaction;  there  must  be  a 
turning  in  of  these  literary  sensations  upon  the  individual  reader.  The  sensa- 
tion must  not  volatilize;  it  must  re-create;  it  must  refer  itself  back  to  the 
reader's  view  of  life  and  there  recognize  its  contrasts  and  establish  its  com- 
parisons. It  will  stimulate  the  personal  question  and  generate  the  personal 
comment.  It  will  arouse  such  inquiries  as  these— Do  I  believe  this?  Does 
my  experience  support  this  view?  Just  what  differences  are  there  between 
the  situations  described  and  my  own  situation  on  a  particular  occasion?  May 
the  author's  teaching  be  accepted  as  universally  true? 

But,  some  one  says,  this  is  all  selfish,  and  the  function  of  literature  should 
be  altruistic.  Let  me  hasten  to  say  that  the  wisest  altruism  usually  follows 
the  wisest  egoism.  The  understanding  of  self  will  usually  generate  a  knowledge 
of  other  selves.  The  recognition  of  faults  in  our  own  person  should  make  us 
more  readily  condone  faults  in  other  persons;  knowledge  of  our  own  limita- 
tions should  make  us  tolerant  of  the  limitations  of  others.  But  perhaps  we 
can  make  clear  this  notion  of  the  subjective  influence  of  nature  by  a  concrete 
illustration. 

What  child  in  reading  the  story  of  Red  Riding  Hood,  for  example,  has 
stopped  with  the  objective  comprehension  of  those  familiar  details?  He  has, 
of  course,  seen  in  clear  vision  the  little  girl  clad  in  her  familiar  costume 
going  through  the  lonely  woods,  meeting  the  big,  gaunt  wolf,  listening  to  his 
honeyed  words  and  watched  his  unctuous  manner.  And  a  few  minutes  later 
he  has  seen  the  wolf  in  another  guise  acting  the  part  of  the  grandmother.  But 
it  is  not  alone  the  clear  vision  of  these  details  that  has  made  this  story  live  in 
the  universal  heart  of  childhood.  Each  reader  who  has  had  his  pulse-beat 
quickened  by  this  story  has  consciously  or  unconsciously  put  himself  in  the 
place  of  Little  Red  Riding  Hood.  The  little  girl's  antidpation  of  delight  on 
seeing  her  grandmother;  her  surprise  on  seeing  in  bed  a  form  so  different 
from  the  one  she  had  expected  to  see;  the  gradually  increasing  feeling  of  fear 
as  she  realized  her  danger;  and  all  this  culminating  in  despair, — what  reader 
of  this  old  tale  has  not  relived  all  this  experience  as  he  has  imagined  himself 
going  successfully  through  the  adventures  which  befell  the  little  heroine  of 
our  childhood  days? 

As  teachers  we  must  ever  bear  in  mind  the  enlargement  which  this  sub-  . 
jective  view  gives.  It  means  that  all  these  images,  these  pictures  in  the  mind, 
the  sensory  impressions, — in  a  word,  the  imaginative  concepts, — find  their 
basis  in  experience.  Imagination  takes  these  experiences,  enlarges,  reduces, 
readjusts,  revamps;  and  out  of  the  old  emerges  the  new.  Oftentimes  the 
spirit  of  a  passage  allows  us  to  take  a  simple  repeopling  or  recostuming  ^creates 
the  proper  effect.  •  By  way  of  illustration  let  me  read  a  portion  of  a  themeN 

134 


written  a  few  weeks  ago  by  one  of  our  pupils  while  we  were  studying  The 
Idylls  of  the  King.  The  assignment  was  of  a  general  character,— the  members 
of  the  class  were  asked  to  note  any  particular  passage  that  appealed  to  them 
and  to  write  of  the  thoughts  that  were  suggested.  I  quote  only  a  part  of  the 
paper: 

"It  is  stormy  tonight,  and  in  spite  of  all  my  efforts  the  dismal  howling 
of  the  wind  has  crept  into  my  mood  and  left  me  sad  and  lonely.  In  such  a 
humor  my  imagination  is  keenest,  and  as  I  read  Gareth  and  Lynette  I  am 
carried  from  present  to  past,  and  from  past  to  present  with  hardly  a  break. 
The  scenes  were  almost  as  vivid  as  were  those  when  we  sat  around  the  fire- 
light looking  up  into  grandmother's  face  listening  to  her  wonderful  'really, 
truly,  sure-enough'  Indian  stories. 

Gareth,  in  a  showerful  spring 
Stared  at  the  spate. 

There  is  nothing  that  can  have  quite  the  same  effect  upon  me  as  looking  at 
the  Ohio  when  it  is  flooded.  To  see  that  mass  of  water  boiling,  bubbling, 
seething,  swirling  in  eddies  and  currents,  sweeping  everything  before  it,  and 
to  realize  that  no  power  on  earth  can  turn  it  back,  stirs  me  to  my  very  soul. 
It  is  not  strange  to  me  that  Gareth  had  such  thoughts  as  he  did  when  he 
stared  at  the  spate." 

When  the  student  wrote  that  paragraph  and  read  it  in  class  next  morning 
it  was  not  necessary  for  me  to  ask  her  the  meaning  of  the  word  spate.  She 
knew  it,  and  she  knew  it  not  merely  as  an  isolated  intellectual  fact;  she  had 
in  fancy  transferred  her  experience  to  Arthur's  realm,  and  for  the  moment 
she  was  linking  her  personality  with  the  gallant  Gareth  as  he  looked  down 
upon  the  flood. 

It  is  just  such  experiences  as  this  which  make  the  subjective  message 
vital.  Whether  this  message  come  in  the  form  of  story,  essay,  or  poem,  the 
method  is  the  same.  The  objective  message  of  the  writer  is  interpreted, 
vivified,  and  reformed  by  the  subjective  mind  of  the  reader.  The  struggles 
of  the  character  are  the  reader's  struggles,  and  all  the  victories  and  the  defeats 
are  thus  vicariously  shared.  Sympathy  is  generated,  and  views  of  life  en- 
larged, and  the  reader  begins  to  feel  his  kinship  with  the  universal  heart  of 
mankind. 

May  I  add  in  conclusion  that  I  assume  that  it  is  apparent  to  all,  that  the 
comprehension  of  the  objective  and  the  subjective  meanings  of  literature  is 
not  in  ordinary  life  distinctly  differentiated?  Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed  that 
they  would,  under  al  conditions,  be  mutually  exclusive.  It  is  merely  for 
purposes  of  analysis  and  intelligent  apperception  that  we  consider  them 
separately.  We  are  to  understand  that  tlie  great  province  of  literature  is 
the  interpretation  of  life.  The  literary  sensation  will  produce  upon  each  mind 
which  receives  it  a  slightly  different  percept,  depending  upon  the  fabric  and 
the  experience  of  the  receiving  individuaHty.  And  yet,  the  general  tone  and 
temperament  of  human  souls  have  so  much  in  common  that  there  is  a  wide 
gamut  of  general  appeal.  As  we  progress  from  infancy  to  maturity,  our  tastes 
and  our  capacities  are  in  constant  evolution.     As  teachers  we  must  study 

135 


these  changes  in  our  pupils,  and  offer  in  each  progressive  period  the  sort  of 
literary  pabulum  which  will  best  secure  the  existing  mental  grasp  and  best 
incite  the  healthy  reach.  With  growing  strength  and  tenser  fibre  the  mental 
power  expands  and  the  varying  emotions  find  freer  expression.  The  counter- 
play  of  life  and  literature  grows  more  interesting,  and  each  becomes  a  helpful 
interpreter  of  the  other.  Literature  reveals  its  warnings,  its  encouragements, 
its  wisdom,  its  humors,  and  its  beauties;  and  life  absorbs  these  to  its  ultimate 
growth  and  good.  It  is  to  this  great  task^this  task  so  rich  in  possibilities 
for  the  pupil's  enrichment — that  we  English  teachers  have  pledged  our  devo- 
tion. Who  is  there  among  us  that  will  not  be  willing  to  pray  the  prayer 
which  John  Milton  prayed  in  preparing  for  his  epic? 

What  in  me  is  dark 

Illumine,  what  is  low  raise  and  support. 

In  teaching  literature  we  shall  make  earnest  endeavor  to  increase  the 
student's  power  to  perceive  the  objective  meaning  of  the  literary  message  in 
order  that  there  may  come,  coincident  with  this,  a  fuller  conception  of  the 
subjective  message.  And  all  this  we  shall  do  in  the  faith  that  this  expansion 
of  intellect  and  emotion  means  the  constant  expansion  of  character.  (43) 


(43)  Thomas,  pp.  1-18. 


136 


CONTRIBUTION  IV. 

THE  GENETIC  VIEWPOINT   IN  LANGUAGE  TEACHING. 

According  to  the  greatest  modern  historian  of  antiquity,  the  earliest 
accurate  date  in  ancient  history  is  the  19th  of  July,  4241  B.  C,  when  a  feast 
was  held  in  Egypt  to  celebrate  the  founding  of  the  calendar.  We  know  this 
date  from  testimony  more  reliable  than  would  be  the  word  of  any  writer  or 
any  dozen  writers,  from  the  witness  of  the  heavens.  By  astronomical  knowl- 
edge of  eclipses  alone,  we  can  go  back  for  thousands  of  years  and  tell  the  exact 
date  of  a  battle  when  the  general  himself  did  not  know  the  day  of  the  month. 
We  get  time  history  out  of  stones  which  our  grandfathers  accepted  as  miraculous 
and  our  fathers  dismissed  as  fables.  *  *  *  The  archeological  discoveries  of  the 
last  50  years  taught  us  more  of  ancient  history  than  had  the  preceding- 1000 
years. 

Not  only,  however,  in  regard  to  events  of  what  we  call  ancient  history 
has  there  been  a  quickening  of  interest  and  an  increase  of  knowledge.  We 
are  continually  going  back.  We  are  asking  about  the  entire  period  of  man's 
existence  in  the  earth,  and  the  science  of  prehistoric  archeology  is  beginning 
to  answer  our  questions.  As  has  been  pointed  out  by  a  great  modern  scholar: 
"  In  sketching  the  human  period,  the  old  way  was  to  place  the  vanishing  point 
at  the  dawn  of  history".  This  explains  why  many  a  so-called  history  of  the 
world  covers  only  about  6,000  years.  "But",  he  says,  "this  resulted  in  a 
false  perspective.  The  researches  of  the  archeologists  have  made  it  possible 
to  correct  the  error  by  shifting  the  vanishing-point  to  the  prehistoric  horizon". 
Conservative  estimates  take  more  than  500,000  years  as  the  period  covered 
by  human  life;  history  covers  6,000.  But  what  was  man  doing  during  the 
previous  milleniums  of  silence?  Do  we  get  the  important  facts,  we  may  well 
ask,  in  our  history  of  these  short  6,000  years,  and  was  nothing  accomplished 
worthy  to  be  remembered  or  possible  to  be  discovered  in  the  incomprehensible 
lapse  of  time  before  the  establishment  of  the  calendar?  Sure  among  the  great 
benefactors  of  the  human  race  we  should  count  those  nameless  men  who 
first  mastered  fire  and  made  it  their  household  servant,  the  men  who  took 
the  sharp  rocks  and  forced  from  them  a  defense  against  dangerous  beasts 
and  a  means  of  securing  food.  They  tamed  the  wild  ox  and  the  horse,  the 
sheep  and  the  goat,  and  left  their  caves  and  dens  and  came  to  live  in  the 
plains,  surrounded  by  peaceful  herds;  they  found  the  wild  wheat  and  the  wild 
rice  and  separated  the  cereals  from  the  weeds  and  brot  them  home  and  made 
them  better,  they  conquered  a  soil  hitherto  unbroken  and  made  it  a  mine  of 
wealth.  From  the  beasts  who  threatened  their  lives  they  took  skins  and  made 
clothing  to  protect  themselves  against  the  cold  and  sewed  skins  with  needles 
made  from  bones. 

But  long  before  these  achievements  there  was  a  greater.  Naturalists  tell 
us  that  the  wild  dog  of  the  forest  has  only  one  or  two  notes  as  compared  with 
the  whine,  whimper,  howl,  yelp,  bark,  and  growl  of  the  domesticated  animal. 

137 

10 


And  these  early  men,  we  must  believe,  could  express  their  wants  only  by 
gestures  and  inarticulate  cries.  In  time,  however,  our  ancestors  passed 
beyond  the  stage  of  gesture  language,  made  gradual  additions  to  the  primitive 
stock  of  natural  sounds,  gave  names  to  objects  and  actions  of  common  Hfe, 
and  little  by  Httle  found  out  how  to  tell  the  story  of  the  hunt  so  that  those 
at  home  could  see  the  wild  ox  as  he  fell,  and  by  a  wonderful  process,  more 
marvelous  than  the  invention  of  the  telephone  or  telegraph,  wrought  out 
speech  and  languages  which,  when  history  came,  could  be  used  to  record  it. 
We  think  of  our  modern  age  as  the  one  of  great  inventions  and  discoveries; 
but  nothing  in  recent  times  can  compare  in  importance  with  the  discovery 
of  fire  and  the  invention  of  language.  There  is  no  period  of  history,  however 
brilliant  or  advanced  or  interesting,  which  has  for  me  the  fascination  of  those 
twilight  centuries  when  men  were  learning  what  it  means  to  talk. 

And  how  can  we  know  anything  of  this  period?  There  are  various  ways: 
partly  through  science  of  archeology  already  mentioned,  which  leads  back 
thru  the  Greek  and  Roman  and  other  early  civilizations  to  the  cave  homes  of 
prehistoric  times.  An  exceedingly  interesting  account  of  the  recent  discoveries 
in  France,  Spain,  and  elsewhere  has  just  been  published  in  book  form.  And 
along  with  archeology  goes  prehistoric  anthropology,  which  reconstructs 
primitive  man  from  skull  and  a  few  bones.  The  other  sciences,  too,  are 
helping.  A  few  years  ago  I  heard  a  botanist  tell  of  the  recent  discovery  after 
years  of  search,  of  the  wild  ancestor  to  our  wheat,  I  felt  the  thrill  that  would 
come  to  one  who  caught  a  glimpse  through  a  window  opening  into  the  early 
ages  of  the  world. 

And  we  can  learn  still  more  through  language.  The  small  boy  who 
would  know  how  the  clock  was  made  watches  his  chance  to  take  the  clock  to 
pieces  and  look  it  over  for  himself;  and  then  perhaps  he  knows.  We  who  are 
fascinated  by  this  riddle  of  riddles  as  to  how  primitive  man  secured  one  of  the 
most  vital  and  necessary  of  all  his  possessions — the  one  which  particularly 
distinguished  him  from  other  animals, — the  power  to  communicate  his  thots  to 
another  mind  first  came  with  thrilling  zest  to  take  to  pieces  our  own  language, 
and  we  find  that  it  goes  back  to  the  Norman-French,  here  to  Germanic,  here 
it  runs  off  to  Slavic,  and  here  it  has  preserved  a  bit  of  Celtic,  and  here  it  is 
Latin,  and  here  it  is  Greek,  and  we  take  these  all  to  pieces  and  the  interest 
grows  and  the  thrills  increase,  for  as  we  go  farther  back  we  are  coming  nearer 
to  the  heart  of  things.  When  Sir  Wm.  Jones  in  1786  discovered  the  Sanscrit 
language  he  made  it  possible  for  those  who  come  after  him  to  understand  far 
more  about  the  growth  and  development  of  language  in  general  than  any 
grammarian  in  Europe,  however  painstaking,  had  ever  known  before.  When 
a  scholar  a  few  years  later  undertook  to  reconstruct  the  language  of  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Europe  and  even  translating  two  fables  into  primitive  Indo- 
European,  -his  zeal  carried  him  too  far.  Yet  it  still  remains  that  little  by 
little  the  history  of  the  development  of  primitive  language  is  being  written 
from  the  study  of  other  languages;  and  if  the  discovery  of  the  wild  ancestor 
of  the  wheat  gives  linguists  a  thrill,  it  is  a  thrill  of  enthusiasm  arising  partly 
at  least  from  the  suggestion  that  there  is  a  path  that  may  lead  us  to  the  wild 
ancestor  of  the  dative  case.     Psychology  needs  to  know  the  workings  of  the 

138 


mind  of  man,  and  perhaps  it  is  by  linguistic  psychology  or  the  psychological 
study  of  the  facts  of  grammar  working  back  thru  the  ancient  languages  that 
we  can  approximate  this. 

The  study  of  literature  is  entertaining,  inspiring,  and  ennobling.  But 
the  study  of  language  is  not  literature  merely  or  at  all.  Language  must  be 
regarded  as  a  mere  tool.  It  is  itself  a  manifestation  of  the  social  consciousness 
of  a  people,  on  a  par  with  religion,  customs  and  laws.  The  comparative  or 
the  historical  study  of  language  is  a  study  of  the  development  of  thought  and 
modes  of  thinking  at  various  times  and  among  various  peoples.  As  a  simple 
illustration  of  the  development  of  a  small  part  of  one  language,  we  can  see 
plainly,  in  Latin,  certain  forms  of  certain  verbs  (licet),  for  example,  losing  their 
verbal  force  and  coming  to  be  conjunctions.  Others  like  ("vel"),  have 
already  completely  lost  their  verbal  force.  We  can,  then,  perhaps  work  back 
to  the  time  where  there  were  no  conjunctions  at  all.  The  study  of  language 
including  linguistics  and  its  sister  sciences  is  turning  its  carefully  constructed 
telescope  toward  those  distant  regions  where  pronouns  first  came  into  being, 
where  genders  differentiated  themselves,  where  the  difference  between  singular 
and  plural  first  seemed  of  su'iicient  importance  to  be  expressed,  where  the 
passive  voice  and  the  various  modes  and  tenses  of  the  verb  and  cases  of  the 
noun  began,  like  the  first  animals  in  Milton's  account  of  creation,  to  struggle 
upward  into  life. 

And  so  the  study  of  language  even  in  its  simple  beginnings  is  a  preparation, 
if  one  wants  to  make  it  so,  for  the  rapture  of  pursuing  the  mind  of  man  back 
and  back  to  its  primitive  lair.  Exceedingly  illuminating  and  suggestive  to 
me  was  the  remark  of  a  professor:  "We  are  now  using  prehistoric  Aryan  as 
it  has  been  modified  by  everyday  use.  Latin  (think  of  this  as  you  are  teaching 
it)  is  the  prehistoric  language.  There  has  been  throughout  a  perfect  con- 
tinuity of  intelligibility."  Latin,  for  instance,  is  only  a  portion  of  the  bridge 
reaching  from  the  first  rude  attempts  at  communication  made  by  primitive 
man  to  the  complex  expression  of  complex  mental  processes  in  use  by  scholars 
of  today.  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  a  little  of  the  wonder,  interest  and 
enthusiasm  that  comes  to  students  of  biology  as  they  are  initiated  into  the 
secrets  of  physical  life  and  development  will  be  felt  by  those  who  are  teaching 
and  studying  it  *  *  *.  We  value  many  of  our  possessions  because  of  their 
potentialities;  and  our  interest  and  pleasure  are  not  conditioned  by  the  prob- 
ability or  the  possibility  of  these  potentialities  ever  being  called  into  actual 
use  by  ourselves.  The  fact  that  only  a  very  few  of  our  students  will  ever 
continue  their  study  of  ancient  language  into  the  graduate  school  will  cer- 
tainly not  keep  a  little  Latin  from  meaning  more  to  them  if  they  see  the  vista 
into  which  it  opens.  (27) 


(27)  Nye,  p.  428. 


139 


CONTRIBUTION  V. 

ON  THE  SUBLIME  AND  BEAUTIFUL. 

How  Words  Influence  the  Passions. 

Now,  as  words  affect,  not  by  original  power,  but  by  representation,  it 
might  be  supposed,  that  their  influence  over  the  passions  should  be  but  light; 
yet  it  is  quite  otherwise;  for  we  find  by  experience,  that  eloquence  and  poetry 
are  as  capable,  nay  indeed  more  capable,  of  making  deep  and  lively  impressions 
than  any  other  art,  and  even  than  nature  itself  in  many  cases.  And  this 
arises  chiefly  from  three  causes.  First,  that  we  take  an  extraordinary  part 
in  the  passions  of  others,  and  that  we  are  easily  affected  and  brought  into 
sympathy  by  any  tokens  which  are  shown  them;  and  there  are  no  tokens 
which  can  express  all  the  circumstances  of  most  passions  so  fully  as  words; 
so  that  if  a  person  speaks  upon  any  subject,  he  can  not  only  convey  the  subject 
to  you,  but  likewise  the  manner  in  which  he  is  himself  affected  by  it.  Cer- 
tain it  is,  that  the  influence  of  most  things  on  our  passions  is  not  so  much  from 
the  things  themselves,  as  from  our  opinions  concerning  them;  and  these  again 
depend  very  much  on  the  opinions  of  other  men,  conveyable  for  the  most  part 
by  words  only.  Secondly,  there  are  many  things  of  a  very  affecting  nature, 
which  can  seldom  occur  in  the  reality,  but  the  words  that  represent  them 
often  do;  and  thus  they  have  an  opportunity  of  making  a  deep  impression 
and  taking  root  in  the  mind,  whilst  the  idea  of  the  reality  was  transient;  and 
to  some  perhaps  never  really  occurred  in  any  shape,  to  whom  it  is  notwith- 
standing very  affecting,  as  war,  death,  famine,  etc.  Besides,  many  ideas  have 
never  been  at  all  presented  to  the  senses  of  any  men  but  by  words,  as  God, 
angels,  devils,  heaven,  and  hell,  all  of  which  have  however  a  great  influence 
over  the  passions.  Thirdly,  by  words  we  have  it  in  our  power  to  make  such 
combinations  as  we  cannot  possibly  do  otherwise.  By  this  power  of  com- 
bining, we  are  able,  by  the  addition  of  well  chosen  circumstances,  to  give  a 
new  life  and  force  to  the  simple  object.  In  painting  we  may  represent  any 
fine  figure  we  please;  but  we  never  can  give  it  those  enlivening  touches  which 
it  may  receive  from  words.  To  represent  an  angel  in  a  picture,  you  can  only 
draw  a  beautiful  young  man  winged;  but  what  painting  can  furnish  out  any- 
thing so  grand  as  the  addition  of  one  word,  "the  angel  of  the  Lord"?  It  is 
true,  I  have  here  no  clear  idea;  but  these  words  affect  the  mind  more  than  the 
sensible  image  did;  which  is  all  I  contend  for.  A  picture  of  Priam  dragged 
to  the  altar's  foot,  and  there  murdered,  if  it  were  well  executed,  would  un- 
doubtedly be  very  moving;  but  there  are  many  aggravating  circumstances, 
which  it  could  never  represent. 

"sanguine  foedantem  quos  ipse  sacraverat  ignes." 


140 


As  a  further  instance,  let  us  consider  those  lines  of  Milton,  where  he 
describes  the  travels  of  the  fallen  angels  through  their  dismal  habitation: 

" — O'er  many  a  dark  and  dreary  vale 
They  passed,  and  many  a  region  dolorous; 
O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp; 
Rocks,  caves,  lakes,  fens,  bogs,  dens,  and  shades  of  death, 
A  universe  of  death. — " 

Here  is  displayed  the  force  of  union  in 

"Rocks,  caves,  lakes,  dens,  bogs,  fens,  and  shades;" 

which  yet  would  lose  the  greatest  part  of  their  effect,  if  they  were  not  the 

"Rocks,  caves,  lakes,  dens,  bogs,  fens,  and  shades — of  Death." 

This  idea  of  this  affection  caused  by  a  word,  which  nothing  but  a  word 
could  annex  to  the  others,  raises  a  very  great  degree  of  the  sublime;  and  this 
sublime  is  raised  yet  higher  by  what  follows,  a  "universe  of  Death."  Here 
are  again  two  ideas  not  presentable  but  by  language;  and  an  union  of  them 
great  and  amazing  beyond  conception;  if  they  may  properly  be  cahed  ideas 
which  present  no  distinct  image  to  the  mind: — but  still  it  will  be  difficult  to 
conceive  how  words  can  move  the  passions  which  belong  to  real  objects, 
without  representing  these  objects  clearly.  This  is  difficult  to  us,  because 
we  do  not  sufficiently  distinguish,  in  our  observations  upon  language,  between 
a  clear  expression  and  a  strong  expression.  These  are  frequently  confounded 
with  each  other,  though  they  are  in  reality  extremely  different.  The  former 
regards  the  understanding;  the  latter  belongs  to  the  passions.  The  one 
describes  a  thing  as  it  is;  the  latter  describes  it  as  it  is  felt.  Now,  as  there 
is  a  moving  tone  of  voice,  an  impassioned  countenance,  an  agitated  gesture, 
which  affect  independently  of  the  things  about  which  they  are  exerted,  so 
there  are  words,  and  certain  disposition  of  words,  which  being  peculiarly 
devoted  to  passionate  subjects,  and  always  used  by  those  who  are  under  the 
influence  of  any  passion,  touch  and  move  us  more  than  those  which  far  more 
clearly  and  distinctly  express  the  subject  matter.  We  yield  to  sympathy 
what  we  refuse  to  description.  The  truth  is,  all  verbal  description,  merely 
as  naked  description,  though  never  so  exact,  conveys  so  poor  and  insufficient 
an  idea  of  the  thing  described,  that  it  could  scarcely  have  the  smallest  effect, 
if  the  speaker  did  not  call  in  to  his  aid  those  modes  of  speech  that  mark  a 
strong  and  lively  feeling  in  himself.  Then,  by  the  contagion  of  our  passions, 
we  catch  a  fire  already  kindled  in  another,  which  probably  might  never  have 
been  struck  out  by  the  object  described.  Words,  by  strongly  conveying  the 
passions,  by  those  means  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  fully  compensate 
for  their  weakness  in  other  respects.  It  may  be  observed,  that  very  polished 
languages,  and  such  are  praised  for  their  superior  clearness  and  perspicuity, 
are  generally  deficient  in  strength.  The  French  language  has  that  perfection 
and  defect,  whereas  the  Oriental  tongues,  and  in  general  the  languages  of  most 
unpolished  people,  have  a  great  force  and  energy  of  expression;  and  this  is 
but  natural.     Uncultivated  people  are  but  ordinary  observers  of  things,  and 

141 


not  critical  in  distinguishing  them;  but,  for  that  reason,  they  admire  more, 
and  are  more  affected  with  what  they  see,  and  therefore  express  themselves 
in  a  warmer  and  more  passionate  manner.  If  the  affection  be  well  conveyed, 
it  will  work  its  effect  without  any  idea  at  all  of  the  thing  which  has  originally 
given  rise  to  it. 

It  might  be  expected  from  the  fertility  of  the  subject,  that  I  should  con- 
sider poetry,  as  it  regards  the  sublime  and  beautiful,  more  at  large;  but  it 
must  be  observed  that  in  this  light  it  has  been  often  and  well  handled  already. 
It  was  not  my  design  to  enter  into  the  criticism  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful 
in  any  art,  but  to  attempt  to  lay  down  such  principles  as  may  tend  to  ascertain, 
to  distinguish,  and  to  form  a  sort  of  standard  for  them;  which  purposes  I 
thought  might  be  best  effected  by  an  inquiry  into  the  properties  of  such  things 
in  nature,  as  raise  love  and  astonishment  in  us;  and  by  showing  in  what 
manner  they  operated  to  produce  these  passions.  Words  were  only  so  far  to 
be  considered,  as  to  show  upon  what  principle  they  were  capable  of  being 
the  representatives  of  these  natural  things,  and  by  what  powers  they  were 
able  to  affect  us  often  as  strongly  as  the  things  they  represent,  and  sometimes 
much  more  strongly."  (5) 


(5)  Burke,  p.  97. 


142 


CONTRIBUTION  VI. 

WORD-COINAGE  AND   MODERN  TRADE-NAMES. 

I. 

All  the  world  seems  to  feel  at  liberty  at  the  present  time  to  coin  words 
for  use  as  trade-names,  generally  without  regard  for  orthodox  methods  of 
word-creation,  or  for  the  general  linguistic  acceptability  of  the  term  thus 
brought  into  being.  *  *  * 

The  general  desire  of  the  projectors  of  new  trade-names  is  to  hit  upon 
something  that  will  impress  itself  on  the  memory  of  prospective  buyers  of 
their  goods.  The  sole  test  of  a  proposed  word  seems  to  be  its  effectiveness  as 
advertising.  Beyond  dispute,  an  apt  or  a  striking  name  for  a  newly  invented 
article  will  go  far  to  promote  sales.  *  *  * 

One  type  of  trade-name  much  in  vogue  at  present,  that  created  by  the 
process  known  as  "blending",  no  doubt  owes  its  success,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
to  the  popularity  of  the  "portmanteau  word"  passage  in  Lewis  Carroll's 
Through  the  Looking  Glass,  where  the  author  illustrates  the  convenience  of 
making  one  word  serve  the  purpose  of  several  by  the  process  of  telescoping 
them  into  one,  e.  g.,  galumphing,  from  galloping  and  triumphing,  mimsy  from 
miserable  and  flimsy.  *  *  *  Scientific  nomenclatures,  names  for  electrical  en- 
gineering appliances,  and  the  like,  are  left  out  of  account  in  the  material  here 
presented.  *  *  *  . 

II. 

TRADE-TERMS  FROM  PROPER  NAMES  AND  PLACE-NAMES. 

Not  strictly  "coinages"  are  trade-names  arising  from  the  use  of  the 
surname  of  some  inventor  or  manufacturer,  or  derived  from  the  name  of  some 
celebrity,  or  from  some  place-name;  nevertheless  they  deserve  treatment  in 
the  discussion  of  word-creation  in  commercial  nomenclature.  They  become 
words  new  in  the  sense  that  they  lose  their  original  force  as  proper  or  place- 
names  and  assume  recognized  meaning  as  names  of  things.  They  are  likely 
to  differ  from  other  trade-names  in  that  they  less  often  are  deliberately  fixed 
upon  and  launched  in  their  new  meaning  with  the  first  appearance  of  the 
article  so  designated;  their  currency  arises  gradually,  through  association. 
To  cite  examples  from  place-names,  worsted  was  first  manufactured  at  an 
English  village  of  that  name.  Other  similar  names  for  fabrics  are  Worcester,  a 
fine  grade  of  woolen  cloth,  calico,  cambric,  kersey,  mechlin.  Many  varieties 
of  wines  take  their  names  from  places.  Most  interesting  among  these  is 
sherry,  originally  shipped  from  Xeres  in  Spain,  the  Roman  Caesaris  urbs.  *  *  * 

Some  nineteenth  century  American  commercial  terms  originating  from 
surnames  are  the  following:  barlow,  or  barlow  knife,  a  certain  type  of  one- 
bladed  jackknife,  named  from  its  American  maker,  bloomers,  a  costume  worn 
by  American  women  in  gymnasium  practice,  so  called  after  Mrs.  Amelia 
Bloomer,  who  sought  to  introduce  them.  *  *  * 

The  derivation  of  trade-terms  directly  from  proper  names  or  place-names 
is  at  present  time  not  very  frequent. 

143 


III. 

SHORTENINGS  AND  EXTENSIONS. 

One  kind  of  the  commonest  methods  employed  in  the  contemporary 
creation  of  new  commercial  terms  is  to  shorten,  to  extend,  or  to  modify,  gener- 
ally according  to  some  pattern  already  set,  words  descriptive  in  a  telling  way 
of  the  article  to  be  named.  Patterns  fluctuate  more  or  less  in  popularity, 
and  endings  are  various.  At  present,-o,  little  used  not  long  ago,  seems  to 
be  held  in  special  favor.  *  *  * 

In  addition  to  those  cited  below,  many  other  coinages  showing  the  -o 
suffix  are  listed  under  hyphenated  names  (VII)  and  under  blends  (IX). 

Alahasco  wall  paint,  made  at  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan.  Indestrucfo 
baggage,  i.  e.,  trunks  and  suit  cases,  made  at  Mishewaka,  Indiana.  *   *   * 

The  same  suffix,  -o,  separated  by  a  hyphen,  capitalized,  and  associating 
itself  with  the  interjection,  appears  in: 

Jell-o  Ice  Cream  Powder,  made  by  the  Genesee  Pure  Food  Company, 
LeRoy,  New  York;  and  Glad-o  for  inflamed  feet,  made  at  Lincoln, 
Nebraska.  *  *  * 

IV. 

DIMINUTIVES. 

The  diminutive  suffixes  -let  and  -ette  are  now  much  in  favor.  Occasion- 
ally, in  modern  commercial  use,  the  latter  ending  has  the  pejorative  force  of 
'imitation'  or  'sham',  as  in  leatherette,  imitation  leather  for  upholstery,  or 
Brussellette  carpet,  but  ordinarily  the  force  is  merely  diminutive. 

Wheatlet,  "monarch  of  cereals".  The  Franklin  Company,  Lockport,  New 
York.  Cartarrlets,  antiseptic  tablets;  also  Dyspeplets,  made  by  the  C.I.  Hood 
Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts.  *  *  * 

V. 

COMPOUNDS. 

For  the  names  of  many  articles,  striking  compounds  are  formed,  describing 
or  eulogizing  that  which  is  to  be  designated.  The  elements  in  such  names 
are  not  new,  but  the  combination  is  new;  or  the  combination  in  its  appearance 
as  a  distinct  word.  *  *  * 

Palmolive  soap,  made  at  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  Waxit  floor  finish,  made 
at  Minneapolis.  Underfeed  Warm  Air  Furnaces  "cut  coal  bills",  made  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.  *  *  * 

VI. 

NAMES  SHOWING  DISGUISED  OR  FANCY  SPELLINGS. 

More  popular  than  the  preceding  class  are  names  formed  by  much  the 
same  manner  of  composition  but  spelled  in  simplified,  disguised  or  ingeniously 
modified  ways,  likely  to  make  them  more  rememberable.  An  effective  pioneer 
among  names  of  this  class  is  Uneeda  biscuit  (Uneeda  cigar  in  England)  made 
by  the  National  Biscuit  Company,  followed  by  Takhoma  biscuit,  made  by  the 
same  company,  and  by  Partaka  biscuit.  *  *  * 


144 


VII. 

HYPHENATIONS. 

Names  strikingly  hyphenated  are  especially  likely  to  catch  the  eye,  and 
may  be  formed  in  various  ways.  They  include  shortenings,  hybrid  forms, 
and  blends.  *  *  *  Hy-Tex  face  brick,  sold  at  Lincoln,  Nebraska.  *  *  * 

VIII. 

BLENDS. 

These  play  a  notably  important  part  in  the  current  naming  of  articles  in 
trade.  *  *  * 

Blending  is  now  an  orthodox  method  for  the  formation  of  names  of  com- 
pounds in  chemistry  and  other  sciences,  e.  g.,  chloroform,  formaldehyde, 
dextrose,  bromal,  zincode,  *  *  * 

For  most  of  the  blends  cited  below,  the  parent  words  are  too  obvious 
to  need  indication:  *  *  * 

Jap-A-Lac,  a  varnish,  made  at  Cleveland,  Ohio:  from  Japanese  and 
shellac,  or  laquer.  Everlastik,  i.  e.,  everlasting  elastic,  made  at  Boston. 
Cuticura  skin  remedy:   from  cuticle  and  cure.  *  *  * 

IX. 

BLENDS  BUILT  FROM  NAMES. 

Not  SO  common  a  decade  or  more  ago  but  in  high  favor  at  present  are 
terms  built  from  the  names  of  the  man  forming  a  company,  or  from  the  name 
of  the  company  itself,  or  the  name  of  the  city  or  the  district  which  is  the 
location  of  the  manufacture.  A  pioneer  venture  of  this  type  was  the  Nabisco 
wafer,  made  by  the  National  Biscuit  Company,  the  success  of  which  probably 
set  the  type  for  similar  formations.  *  *  * 

X. 

TRADE-NAMES  BUILT  FROM  INITIALS. 

Sometimes  employed,  when  the  result  makes  a  usable  word,  is  the  method 
of  building  new  terms  from  the  initials  of  the  maker,  or  inventor,  or  of  the 
company  engaged  in  manufacture.  *  *  *  A  few  illustrations  are  these: 

The  Reo  automobile,  made  by  the  R.  E.  Olds  Company,  known  as  the 
Reo  Motor  Car  Company,  of  Lansing,  Michigan.  Olds  was  also  the  designer 
of  the  Oldsmobile.  Sebco  extension  drills,  made  by  the  Star  Expansion  and 
Bolt  Company.  *  *  * 

XI. 

ARBITRARY  NEW  FORMATIONS. 

The  following  names  are  mostly  meaningless.  They  appear  to  be  arbitrary 
creations  rather  than  modifications  or  combinations  of  other  words.  The 
stock  examples  of  an  invented  word  is  gas,  created  by  the  discoverer  of  gas, 
Van  Helmont;  and  many  of  the  words  listed  here  may  be  no  less  arbitrarily 
coined.  *  *  * 


145 


XII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FORMATIONS. 

The  following  terms,  of  various  patterns,  may  be  grouped  together  for 
convenience;  although  they  have  little  in  common  save  their  facetious 
quality.  *  *  * 

Colorite  straw  renovator,  made  at  Boston.  The  Aeolian  orchestrelle,  of 
Aeolian  Hall,  London.  Wheatena  breakfast  food.  Dentyne  chewing  gum,  for 
the  teeth.     Limetta,  a  drink  for  sale  at  soda  fountains.  *  *  * 

XIII. 

Peculiar  to  the  later  nineteenth  and  earlier  twentieth  centuries,  the 
"florescence-time"  for  advertising  in  the  world's  history,  is  such  untrammelled 
and  prolific  invention  of  trade  terms,  such  variety  and  abundance  of  coinage, 
as  the  foregoing  pages  have  exemplified.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  recall  in 
contrast  the  general  style  of  commercial  nomenclature  prevailing  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  advertising  was  in  its  infancy,  and  to  note  the 
divergence  between  that  period  and  our  own  in  the  name-seeker's  idea  of  what 
might  be  counted  upon  to  have  popular  appeal.  The  following  specimens  of 
eighteenth  century  trade-names  are  from  the  advertisements  in  the  Spectator. 
They  show  no  arbitrarily  invented  words,  unless  the  not  illegitimate  Jatropoton, 
presumably  from  the  name  of  the  botanical  genus  Jatropha.  The  motley  and 
audacious  terms  of  our  own  day  seem  capricious  and  undignified  indeed,  along- 
side the  formal  designations  created  by  our  ancestors.  There  is  approximately 
the  same  difference  in  the  taste  of  the  two  centuries  in  commercial  terms  that 
exists  between  the  prose  manner  of  writers  like  0.  Henry  and  his  followers 
and  that  of  the  authors  of  the  De  Coverley  Papers. 

R.  Stoughton's  great  Cordial  Elixir,  famous  throughout  Europe  — **  *The 
famous  Italian  Water  for  Dying  Red  and  Grey  Hairs  *  *  *  Brown  or  Black. 
—  *  *  *  The  famous  Spanish  Blacking  for  Gentlemen's  Shoes.  *  *  * 

We  constantly  need  designations  for  new  articles  of  dress,  of  food,  of  house- 
furnishing,  and  the  like;  and  now,  as  in  the  days  of  the  Spectator,  we  have 
advertisements  of  novel  medicines  and  remedies  of  all  kinds,  for  which  ex- 
travagant claims  are  made.  But  the  "drops"  and  "cordials"  and  "tinctures" 
and  "elixirs"  which  our  ancestors  craved  are  now  out  of  favor.  Such  names 
are  too  conventional  to  prove  effective  upon  the  posters,  or  the  signs,  or  in 
the  columns  of-  newspapers,  of  the  twentieth  century.  Ours — so  long  as 
present  vogue  continues — seems  to  be  word-creation  or  word-manipulation,  as 
it  were,  with  the  lid  off.  Where  our  ancestors  were  content  with  conservatism 
and  monotony,  the  present  day  reveals  a  fluctuating  and  bewildering  variety 
of  commercial  terms  without  apparent  limits  of  kind  or  quantity.  (28) 


(28)  Pound,  pp.  29-41. 


146 


CONTRIBUTION  VII. 
CULTURAL  AND  VOCATIONAL. 

"It  would  be  difficult  to  appraise  the  injury. done  to  the  cause  of  sound 
education  by  the  fact  that  abstract  theory  counts  for  so  much,  and  concrete 
experience  for  so  little,  in  the  regulation  of  the  school  curriculum.  When  the 
experimental  psychologists  announce  the  "discovery  that  formal  discipline 
is  not  a  factor  of  value  in  education,"  the  new  doctrine  was  hailed  with  acclaim 
on  all  sides.  Even  teachers  of  the  classics  felt  constrained  to  yield  assent. 
For  had  not  the  "experts"  spoken? 

The  fact  that  this  theory  is  flatly  contravened  by  the  facts  of  every  day 
observation  and  experience  seems  to  have  interfered  little  with  its  vogue.  It 
did  its  baleful  work  in  weakening  the  backbone  of  the  school  system,  and  now, 
on  the  basis  of  additional  experiments,  the  psychologists  are  obUged  to  admit 
that  the  facts  do  not  at  all  substantiate  their  earlier  "discovery". 

The  movement  in  favor  of  vocational  training  in  the  schools  threatened 
at  first  to  take  the  form  of  another  unreasoning  stampede.  But  already 
there  are  signs  of  returning  sanity.  Three  facts  in  particular  are  coming  to 
be  rather  generally  recognized:  (1)  vocational  training  of  the  right  kind 
should  find  a  place  in  many  schools;  (2)  it  will  be  a  fatal  mistake  if  vocational 
studies  are  allowed  to  crowd  cultural  subjects  from  the  curriculum;  (3)  much 
vocational  training  (as  now  conducted)  is  a  practical  failure. 

Few  would  challenge  the  first  of  these  propositions,  and  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  talk  with  principals  and  school  superintendents  to  be  convinced  of 
the  truth  of  the  third.  The  failure  of  vocational  training — where  it  is  a 
failure — is  due  to  various  causes.  In  some  cases  the  course  of  instruction  is 
not  adequate  and  practical — it  does  not  really  prepare  the  student  for  par- 
ticipation in  the  world's  industrial  life.  Again,  the  student  may  be  too  im- 
mature to  profit  by  the  course.  Time  that  could  better  be  spent  on  general 
education  he  wastes  on  work  that  he  could  master  more  quickly  and  more 
surely  if  the  study  were  postponed  to  a  period  of  greater  maturity. 

This  last  point  is  of  special  importance,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  a  some 
what  general  movement  is  now  on  foot  to  carry  back  the  beginning  of  "high- 
school"  work  to  the  seventh  grade  (six-six  and  six-three-three  plans).  For 
taking  up  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  a  child  is  at  his  best  in  the  seventh 
grade;  and  if  it  be  true  that  he  is  not  mature  enough  at  that  time  for  really 
effective  vocational  training,  the  claims  of  certain  cultural  subjects  at  that 
time  are  obvious. 

It  is,  however,  the  second  of  the  three  propositions  laid  down  above, 
that  is  of  most  importance  to  the  teacher  of  the  classics.  We  must  admit 
that  in  many  schools  a  place  should  be  found  for  vocational  training;  but  in 
season  and  out  of  season,  it  will  be  necessary  to  press  home  the  even  more  im- 
portant truth  that  room  must  be  made  in  the  curriculum  for  vocational  training 
as  an  addition — such  courses  must  not  be  allowed  to  displace  cultural  subjects 

147 


from  the  school  program.  There  are  already  very  hopeful  signs  that  the 
justice  of  this  contention  is  being  recognized  in  very  diverse  quarters.  In  the 
San  Francisco  Chronicle  for  August  21st,  touching  the  discussions  at  the  late 
meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  a  contributor,  who  speaks 
from  the  point  of  view  of  an  industrial  worker,  indulges  in  some  reflections 
that  are  worth  quoting  here.  After  some  pointed  and  sarcastic  remarks  on 
the  theorists  who  propose  to  solve  industrial  problems  out  of  hand  though 
they  themselves  have  never  "done  a  real  day's  labor  for  a  real  day's  pay  in 
their  philanthropically  emotional  lives",  this  writer  proceeds: 

'  'Running  side  by  side  with  the  agitator's  fears  for  the  workers  who  are 
subjected  to  such  monotonous  labor  is  the  agitation  for  vocational  training  in 
the  schools  that  will,  as  early  as  possible,  develop  mechanical  skill  in  the 
children  who  must  become  workers  in  the  industrial  world.  "Why  teach 
'em  flubdub  and  fallals",  they  demand,  "when  eflSciency  is  what  they 
require?  "  And  they  want  the  vocational  substituted  for  the  academic  training 
as  a  matter  of  economy. 

Upon  this  point  Mrs.  Ella  Flagg  Young  has  spoken  at  the  National 
Educational  Association  convention  a  warning — or  a  plea — that  might  well 
be  given  a  little  serious  consideration.  She  is  opposed  to  the  introduction  of 
vocational  training  as  a  substitute  for  the  cultural — not  to  vocational  training 
in  itself,  remember.  She  is  not  in  favor  of  turning  out  human  beings  from 
the  public  school  that  are  merely  mechanically  efficient — that  are  trained 
only  to  be  workers.  She  holds  that  the  public  schools  should  prepare  them 
for  the  living  a  broader  fuller  life  than  the  life  of  the  workshop,  and  that  they 
should  give  them  that  preparation  because  they  must  become  workers  in  the 
workshop. 

It  may  be  that  Mrs.  Ella  F.  Young  is  right.  At  any  rate  it  would  do  no 
harm  to  think  over  the  relation  of  education  to  the  industrial  situation  from 
Mrs.  Y's  point  of  view.  *  *  *  Any  of  us  know  what  it  is  to  work  (to  hold 
down  a  job)  *  *  *  know  also  that  it  isn't  what  we  do  during  our  working 
hours  that  matters  so  much  as  what  we  do  outside  of  our  working  hours.  The 
working  day  is  only  part  of  a  day,  and  there  are  opportunities  and  possibilities 
for  study,  for  acquiring  knowledge,  for  cultivating  talents,  for  learning  how  to 
play,  *  *  *  if  the  worker  has  a  mind  for  them,  and  the  will  to  avail  himself 
of  them.  *  *  *  The  whole  interesting  world  of  fact  and  speculation,  of  beauty 
and  art,  is  open  to  the  worker  at  any  occupation  if  he  have  the  impulse  to 
invade  it — and  the  key  to  it. 

It  is  the  key  to  it  that  Mrs.  Young  is  contending  for.  If  you  do  not 
open  the  door  to  the  public  child  who  must  enter  the  industrial  world  and 
become  a  worker  at  the  monotonous  work  our  progress  imposes,  how  is  he 
going  to  know  what  lies  within  reach?  How  is  he  going  to  escape  the  stunting 
and  atrophying  and  brutalizing;  how  become  immune  to  the  coarse  and  de- 
basing temptations  that  assail  the  ignorant? 

It  would  seem — inasmuch  as  the  industrial  world  offers  what  it  does — that 
the  child  especially  needs  whatever  the  public  school  can  give  it  that  will  teach 
it  how  to  study  and  how  to  play;  and  how  to  make  the  best  mind  and  body — 
and  thus  to  make  the  best  of  life." 

148 


If  the  leaders  in  school  education  are  fully  alive  to  the  absolute  need  of 
conserving  the  cultural  elements  of  the  high  school  curriculum,  and  if  the 
man  in  the  shop  and  factory  feels  the  desirability  of  having  the  children 
trained  for  something  more  than  mere  manual  efficiency,  it  only  remains  for 
us  to  insist  that  this  program  be  carried  out.  At  this  point  continual  watch- 
fulness will  be  required;  for  it  sometimes  happens  that  cultural  elements  are 
eliminated  from  the  high  school  curriculum  in  a  very  insidious  way,  and 
without  any  real  intent  on  the  part  of  those  who  control  the  school 
program."  (26) 


(26)  Nutting,  pp.  65-68. 


149 


CONTRIBUTION   VIII. 

GRAVE  DANGERS  OF  SPECIALIZATION. 

"There  is  a  lack  of  unity  of  purpose  and  lack  of  sympathy  in  the  handling 
of  expression  in  schools  which  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  both  the  man  of 
science  and  the  teacher  of  English  are  specialists.  Illustration  after  illustra- 
tion of  this  highly  specialized  interest  can  be  found  in  the  current  literature 
which  deals  with  the  teaching  of  English  in  the  high  school.  There  is  a  con- 
spicuous illustration  of  this  in  Mr.  Percival  Chubb's  book,  "The  Teaching  of 
English  ".1  The  book  sets  forth  in  vigorous  terms  the  desirability  of  more 
training  in  English  in  the  high  schools  and  the  elementary  school.  In  his 
effort  to  define  the  general  purpose  of  English  during  the  adolescent  period, 
Mr.  Chubb  says  on  page  239  that  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  literature  which 
should  receive  attention  in  the  secondary  school  is  that  which  deals  with 
vocational  subjects.  He  reviews  enthusiastically  the  position  taken  by  G. 
Stanley  Hall,  that  the  vast  majority  of  high  school  graduates  should  get  social 
training  through  the  vernacular.  They  should  be  given  that  kind  of  reading 
and  opportunity  for  expression  which  will  prepare  them  for  social  and  personal 
life  in  vocations.  One  reads  this  part  of  the  book  with  great  interest,  and 
assumes  that  now,  at  least,  we  have  reached  the  point  where  the  vocations 
are  to  receive  adequate  attention  from  the  English  teachers.  He  goes  on 
through  the  book,  and,  to  his  astonishment,  finds  that  all  the  references  to 
books  that  are  actually  to  be  used  are  of  the  conventional  literary  type.  There 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  whole  volume  a  single  book  of  a  strictly  technical 
type.  The  specialist  in  English  literature  has  once  more  shown  that  he  does 
not  have  any  idea  of  his  duty  to  the  vernacular  in  general.  One  is  reminded 
of  the  story  told  by  the  high  school  principal,  who,  after  urging  his  English 
teachers  to  put  in  some  vocational  reading,  encountered  a  teacher  glowing 
with  enthusiasm  because  of  her  success  in  complying  with  his  suggestion. 
She  was  reading  "Silas  Marner"  with  her  class,  and  since  Silas  was  a  weaver, 
she  was  introducing  vocational  ideas  at  the  same  time  that  she  satisfied  the 
college-entrance  requirements. 

PROBLEMS  OF  LITERATURE. 

From  the  discussion  of  modes  of  expression  we  turn  to  a  discussion  of 
that  phase  of  English  which  is  designed  as  Hterature.  The  business  of  the 
class  exercises  and  study  in  literature  is  to  cultivate  appreciation.  There  is 
a  certain  mysticism  in  the  minds  of  many  teachers  about  appreciation.  Taste 
is  proverbially  a  purely  personal  and  quite  inexpHcable  trait.  The  power  of 
appreciation  is  accordingly  said  to  rest  on  subconscious  judgments  which  are 
very  vivid  but  quite  incapable  of  communication.  Such  statements  regard- 
ing the  nature  of  the  process  of  appreciation  are,  of  course,  a  challenge  to  the 
psychologist.     Appreciation  is  a  mental  process  and  is  capable  of  training 


^Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company,  1909. 

150 


under  guidance,  while  to  some  extent  it  seems  to  mature  without  direct  guid- 
ance. Our  problem  is  to  discover  what  is  the  mental  and  psychological  mech- 
anism involved  in  appreciation,  and  thus  to  throw  light  on  the  methods  of  its 
training.  In  other  words,  it  is  here,  as  always,  the  business  of  psychology  to 
refuse  to  be  satisfied  with  mysticism.  Appreciation  must  be  analyzed  and 
explained. 

REACTIONS  TO  CONTENT. 

Appreciation  of  rhythm,  of  structural  facts,  and  of  style  constitute  what 
we  may  call  the  pure  forms  of  rhetorical  appreciation.  There  is  an  entirely 
different  sphere  of  appreciation.  A  literary  passage  is  appreciated  by  the 
trained  reader  for  its  content  as  well  as  for  its  form.  Appreciation  of  content 
is  in  essence  the  same  kind  of  a  mental  process  as  the  appreciation  of  form. 
Content  is  enjoyed  just  in  the  degree  in  which  the  individual's  habits  of  re- 
action are  satisfied  by  the  impulses  aroused  by  what  he  reads.  Or  to  put  the 
matter  in  a  negative  example,  an  individual  can  appreciate  fully  an  emotion 
which  is  expressed  in  a  poem  only  after  he  has  had  some  real  experience  capable 
of  arousing  in  him  modes  of  response  appropriate  to  the  sentiment  expressed 
in  the  poem.  Take,  for  example,  such  a  poem  as  Whittier's  "Barefoot  Boy." 
It  is  sometimes  assumed  that  because  this  poem  is  about  a  boy  it  ought  to 
be  given  to  boys  to  read.  It  is  assumed  that  boys  will  be  aroused  by  the 
sentiment  which  the  author  experienced  when  he  contrasted  the  boy  and  his 
simple  surroundings  and  possessions  with  the  unhappy  man  of  wealth  who  is 
deprived  of  all  the  physical  enjojmients  which  the  barefoot  boy  enjoys.  The 
fact  is,  of  course,  that  an  ordinary  boy  who  has  had  the  privilege  of  going 
barefooted  has  probably  never  had  the  remotest  approach  to  that 
emotional  recoil  against  luxury  experienced  by  the  man  of  wealth  who 
rides  in  his  carriage.  In  other  words,  the  barefoot  boy  cannot  appreciate 
the  discomforts  of  "luxury  which  are  described  to  him  because  the  description 
arouses  in  him  no  response.  In  order  to  have  the  contrast  which  is  in  the 
poet's  mind,  he  must  have  maturity  of  experience  and  the  recoil  of  disappoint- 
ment. To  the  ordinary  boy  no  such  contrast  in  experience  is  possible.  He 
sees  the  matter  only  from  one  uniform  level  of  meager  personal  experience, 
and  this  leaves  him  without  any  possible  appreciation  of  the  Author's  point 
of  view. 

What  has  been  said  in  connection  with  this  example  is  frequently  stated 
in  discussions  of  appreciation  when  it  is  pointed  out  that  one  must  have  some 
contact  with  life  before  he  can  fully  comprehend  the  meaning  of  literature. 
Undoubtedly  one  must  have  cultivated  certain  forms  of  emotional  reaction 
and  certain  forms  of  interpreting  experience  before  he  can  know  what  ideas 
mean.  It  is  not  that  one  needs  merely  to  know  words,  one  must  know  how 
to  relate  words  to  the  larger  experiences  of  life.  Every  individual  word  in 
the  poem  may  be  known  to  the  barefoot  boy.  Every  sentence  may  be  capable 
of  perfectly  definite  explanation,  and  yet  one  may  have  no  appreciation  what- 
soever of  the  sentiments  which  the  phrases  ought  to  bring  up.  The  total 
situation  is  the  mature  product  of  many  experiences.  It  is  not  even  a  matter 
of  interpretation  of  a  given  sentence.  There  is  undoubtedly  a  good  deal  of 
failure  in  the  schools  to  appreciate  this  fact.     We  give  literature  to  high  school 

151 


students  without  any  proper  backing  of  personal  experience  to  interpret  the 
significance  of  the  passage.  The  result  is  that  the  student's  mind  is  concen- 
trated upon  the  purely  formal  side  of  the  passage.  He  is  absorbed  in  the 
words  and  in  the  sentences  as  they  are  presented  on  the  page,  and  he  fails  to 
have  any  appreciation  of  the  real  significance  of  the  passage  because  apprecia- 
tion in  this  case  means  a  response  of  a  large  and  mature  type.  It  would  be 
very  much  better  in  such  cases  to  find  passages  which  can  be  related  to  reac- 
tions of  which  the  learner  is  capable.  Not  that  the  passages  should  forever 
remain  below  the  level  of  present  experience,  merely  depending  on  the  ac- 
cumulations of  the  past  to  interpret  what  is  now  given;  each  passage  read 
should  refine  the  evaluations  given  to  life's  contrasts;  each  passage  should 
bring  out  some  new  analogy  and  some  worthy  difference.  But  these  new 
contributions  to  experience  must  be  close  enough  to  that  which  the  individual 
now  has,  so  that  a  real  relation  may  be  established  in  the  learner's  mind. 
Literary  content  must  not  merely  be  given.  It  must  arouse  a  response.  The 
student  must  feel  the  contrast  or  the  agreement.  He  will  thus  be  prepared 
to  face  in  later  life  more  elaborate  comparisons  and  more  elaborate  inter- 
pretations. He  cannot,  on  the  other  hand,  be  prepared  for  the  later  apprecia- 
tion of  literature  or  for  the  relating  of  life  and  literature  if  the  habits  of  mind 
which  are  cultivated  in  the  schools  are  formal  habits  of  attention  to  words 
and  sentences.  A  strict  attention  to  the  text  in  such  cases  as  this  is  likely 
to  pervert  rather  than  to  aid  the  student's  literary  development.  He  gets 
a  bad  habit  of  thinking  of  poems  and  of  prOse  passages  as  things  in  themselves, 
as  groups  of  words,  as  occasions  for  barren  rhetorical,  grammatical,  or  analyt- 
ical drill."  (20) 


(20)  Judd,  pp.  197-199. 


152 


CONTRIBUTION  IX. 

NEED  OF  MORE  REALITY  IN  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION  AND 

GRAMMAR. 

"What  is  needed  in  the  interest  of  developing  a  curriculum  content 
which  may  possess  real  significance  to  the  pupils  of  the  successive  grades  is 
a  careful  selection  of  those  materials  in  the  different  elementary  school  subjects 
which  ordinary,  rank-and-file  people  in  stores,  on  farms,  and  in  factories  find 
use  for  in  successfully  discharging  their  daily  tasks.  Out  of  this  carefully 
selected  content  should  be  chosen,  as  necessity  requires,  those  facts,  ideas, 
principles,  standards,  and  practices  which  will  answer  the  questions,  solve 
the  problems,  and  supply  the  needs  met  by  pupils.  In  other  words,  the  needs 
of  successful,  mature  persons  engaged  in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  world  should 
determine  the  total  content  of  each  subject  in  the  elementary  curriculum, 
while  the  order  in  which  pupils  master  this  content  should  be  determined  by 
the  order  in  which  they  have  needs,  questions,  or  problems  which  can  be 
satisfactorily  answered  by  the  course  of  study  materials. 

So  far  as  the  content  of  the  course  of  study  in  English  composition  and 
grammar  is  concerned,  therefore,  it  should  provide  foV  the  teaching  of  those 
facts,  habits,  standards,  and  practices  which  those  engaged  in  the  successful 
pursuit  of  the  ordinary  work  of  the  world  find  need  for.  Even  common- 
sense  observation  enables  us  to  study  under  the  guidance  of  this  selective 
standard.  It  is  perfectly  easy,  for  example,  to  distinguish  between  the  abstract 
and  concrete  noun,  between  descriptive  limiting,  and  limiting  descriptive 
adjectives,  between  the  adverbial  ideas  of  time,  place,  manner,  degree,  condi- 
tion; but  the  distinctions  when  made  add  nothing  to  the  equipment  of  any 
man  to  talk  or  write  with  greater  accuracy  or  clearness.  This  list  of  non- 
functional material  with  which  the  teaching  of  language  and  grammar  is  en- 
cumbered might  be  indefinitely  extended. 

Fortunately,  we  are  not  compelled  to  rely  upon  the  data  gathered  from 
ordinary  observation  nor  upon  the  judgment  of  mere  common  sense,  because 
already  one  careful,  scientific  investigation  into  the  functional  material  in  the 
course  of  study  in  English  composition  and  grammar  has  been  made,  and  its 
results  have  been  verified  by  three  careful  additional  studies  in  Columbia, 
Missouri;  Bonham,  Texas,  and  Detroit,  Michigan,  In, November,  1914, 
Dean  W.  W.  Charters  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  with  the  assistance  of 
Miss  Edith  Miller  of  the  Soldan  high  school,  St.  Louis,  began  an  investigation 
in  the  schools  of  Kansas  City  to  determine  upon  the  basis  of  the  errors  in  the 
children's  oral  speech  and  in  their  written  papers,  the  total  errors  which  these 
children  committed  from  the  standpoint  of  accuracy  in  the  use  of  language. 

As  a  basis  of  this  study  of  the  oral  errors  made  by  children  the  teachers 
throughout  the  schools,  during  one  week  in  November,  were  alert  to  note 
every  inaccurate  expression  used  by  any  pupil,  that  the  same  might  be  reported 


153 

11 


to  those  conducting  the  investigation.  A  tabulation  of  these  mistakes  revealed 
a  total  of  twenty-one  types  of  error.  A  few  types  of  error  are  selected,  as 
follows,  for  illustrative  purposes: 

I.  Subject  of  the  verb  not  in  the  nominative  case,  as  in  "He  and  her 
was  both  late".     "Her  was  sitting  here".  *  *  * 

II.  Confusion  of  comparative  and  superlative,  as  in  "Five  larger  cities". 
"The  best  of  the  two".  *  *    * 

12.  Double  negative,  as  in  "You  don't  care  nothing  for  nobody". 
"Didn't  done  nothing".  *  *  * 

As  a  basis  for  the  study  of  the  written  errors  made  by  children  all  of  the 
written  work  which  was  not  revised  and  corrected,  done  by  the  children  in 
twelve  schools  during  one  school  month,  was  submitted  to  critical  examination 
for  errors.  A  tabulation  of  these  returns  revealed  all  of  the  errors  which  had 
been  found  in  the  oral  speech  of  the  children  and  six  additional  ones,  as  follows: 

Omission  of  period  at  end  of  statement. 

Omission  of  question  mark  at  end  of  question. 

Omission  of  apostrophe  to  denote  possession. 

Omission  of  subject. 

Omission  of  predicate. 

Confusion  of  dependent  and  independent  clauses. 

sic*  %4:*****  :ic*4::)c 

The  study  necessary  to  eliminate  from  his  speech  every  type  of  error 
which  Dean  Charters  has  found  in  his  investigations  may  be  fundamentally 
motivated  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  errors  occur  in  the  efforts  of  children 
to  express  themselves  when  their  energy  is  directed  toward  the  accomplish- 
ment of  something  for  which  they  feel  a  need.  The  relation  between  the 
elimination  of  the  error  and  the  subject-matter  taught  to  correct  it  should 
be  very  clear  to  the  pupils  in  the  interest  of  rendering  the  subject-matter  at 
all  times  not  only  real  but  attractive."  (49) 


(49)  Wilson,  pp.  56-59. 


154 


CONTRIBUTION  X. 

PURPOSES  AND  CONTENT  OF  THE  ENGLISH  COURSES.^ 

"The  English  of  the  lower  high  school  includes  structural  and  cultural 
English;  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue,  to  the  end  of  using  it  with  vigor 
and  ease;  and  the  reading  of  noble  literature,  to  the  end  of  establishing  a 
lasting  desire  for  such  reading. 

It  is  assumed  that  in  the  first  cycle  of  six  years  the  pupil,  through  imita- 
tion and  habit,  has  become  possessed  of  a  correct  and  simple  expression  of  the 
thoughts  of  childhood.  Imitation  and  habit  continue  to  be  potent  teachers 
in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  create 
noticeable  progress  in  correct  usage  by  assigning  to  each  semester  a  definite 
number  of  grammatical  constructions  of  peculiar  difficulty,  of  words  easily 
misspelled,  and  of  conventional  forms  of  writing. 

The  reasoning  faculty,  however,  is  now  added  to  imitation  and  habit, 
for  the  pupil  is  at  the  right  age  to  understand  why  one  usage  is  correct  and 
another  incorrect.  The  same  reasons  that  make  this  a  good  time  for  beginning 
the  study  of  a  foreign  language  make  it  an  opportune  time  for  analytical  work 
in  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue.  This  introduction  of  the  reasoning  element 
distinguishes  the  language  work  of  the  lower  high  school  from  that  of  the 
first  six  years.  The  child  has  become  a  youth  and  craves  self-conscious  power 
in  his  use  of  English. 

Somewhere  on  the  road  between  the  simple  activity  of  early  school  life 
and  the  vivid,  many-hued  interests  of  the  high  school,  pure  spontaneous, 
creative  imagination,  except  in  a  few  cases,  is  lost.  In  all  probability  this 
change  is  wrought  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  years  of  the  school  Hfe,  and  could 
largely  be  prevented  by  proper  composition  assignments.  That  type  of 
pupil  is  the  despair  of  high  school  teachers,  who  invariably  asks  when  given  a 
composition  theme,  "Where  shall  I  read  up  about  it?"  The  empty  words  of 
a  perfunctory  paper  prove  too  clearly  how  atrophied  the  imagination  has 
become.  The  ethical  significance  of  such  a  state  is  comprehended  when  we 
reflect  that  most  of  the  misunderstanding  between  people  of  different  classes 
and  trades,  even  in  America,  is  due  to  lack  of  imagination,  rather  than  to 
intentional  unkindness.  It  is  right  at  this  point,  then,  that  the  childish 
imagination,  beginning  to  wane,  must  be  resuscitated  into  social  imagination 
and  foresight.  The  pupil's  composition  exercises  should  be  such  as  to  neces- 
sitate his  putting  himself  into  the  place  of  another  or  into  some  future  place 
of  his  own.  *  *  * 

Since  the  lower  high  school  pupils  are  in  no  sense  being  trained  as  authors, 
the  social  aspects  of  their  written  and  oral  expression  are  of  paramount  im- 
portance. 


'The  purposes,  as  well  as  a  summary  of  the  content,  of  the  English  courses  which  are  being 
developed  in  the  Berkeley  schools  to  conform  to  the  reorganization-  plan  of  the  school  system 
are  set  forth  by  Miss  Fannie  McLean,  the  department  head. 

155 


The  study  of  literature  has  two  marks  of  distinction  in  the  lower  high 
school.  First,  the  classroom  reading  of  masterpieces  becomes  more  intense, 
and  therefore  the  number  of  selections  smaller,  while  the  home  reading  becomes 
broader  and  more  varied.  Secondly,  the  literary  taste  begins  to  take  on  a 
conscious  development;  the  pupil,  vaguely  at  first,  and  then  more  clearly, 
knows  when  he  likes  one  piece  of  literature  and  not  another,  and  struggles 
upward  in  awkward  and  touching  attempts  to  express  himself  in  the  pic- 
turesque language  or  in  the  simple  terseness  of  his  favorite  author,  or  to  reach 
standards  of  admired  excellence  in  his  character.  The  boys  become  new 
Horatiuses,  and  long  for  bridges  to  cross;  the  girls  are  new  Evangelines,  and 
seek  to  add  courage  to  gentleness;  and  boys  and  girls  together  live  in  a  new 
world  remote  from  their  own,  but  strangely  like  it.  This  reading  and  the 
practically  imaginative  composition  described  in  a  previous  paragraph  unite 
in  developing  the  imagination  from  childish  crudity  to  social  helpfulness. 

The  masterpieces  studied  in  the  classroom  are  divided  into  three  groups, 
satisfying  three  demands  of  the  growing  literary  hunger  of  the  youth,  and 
harmonizing  with  the  history  course  of  study,  so  that  literature  has  its  historical 
background  and  history  its  literary  expression. 

The  first  group  comprises  some  early  forms  of  literature,  as  the  child's 
rightful  human  heritage.  These  are  the  simple,  purely  classical,  and  strongly 
imaginative  forms;  such  as  heroic  epics,  lays,  and  ballads.  They  are  correlated 
with  the  study  of  world  history. 

The  second  group  comprises  American  poems,  stories,  speeches,  and 
essays,  as  the  child's  rightful  national  heritage,  in  order  to  inculcate  principles 
of  good  citizenship  and  intelligent  pride  in  his  country.  This  work  is  corre- 
lated with  the  study  of  United  States  history. 

The  third  group  comprises  English  drama  and  romance  as  the  child's 
rightful  race  heritage.  Shakespeare  and  Scott  are  taken  as  the  chief  ex- 
ponents of  this  form  of  literature.  The  short  story  is  made  a  part  of  this 
year's  course,  as  it  is  also  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  years. 

If  the  pupil  should  leave  school  at  the  end  of  the  lower  high  school,  he 
would,  through  the  classroom  study  of  these  masterpieces,  and  through  his 
home  reading  from  the  supplementary  list  furnished,  be  well  started  on  the 
road  to  culture.  In  other  words,  he  would  be  in  an  attitude  of  mind  con- 
ducive to  further  intelligent  reading,  because  his  interpretive  and  reasoning 
powers  would  have  the  beginnings  of  a  comprehension  of  the  relation  of  litera- 
ture to  history  as  one  of  the  most  significant  human  products  of  a  nation's 
civilization.  And,  best  of  all,  contact  with  literature  would  have  awakened, 
even  at  this  early  age,  new  ethical  ideals,' a  social  imagination,  and  a  spirit 
of  reverence  for  true  greatness. 

If  his  schooling  ends  now,  he  has  established  a  permanent  friendship 
with  books,  which  magazines  and  newspapers  alone  will  not  satisfy.  But, 
to  prevent  his  separating  literature  from  life,  and  to  enable  him  to  see  the 
fineness,  the  beauty  and  the  opportuneness  of  our  best  periodical  literature, 
magazine  reading  is  made  a  part  of  the  course.  The  expository  literature 
of  the  day,  as  seen  in  the  articles  upon  Social  and  economic  questions — 
city  planning,  children's  playgrounds,     George  Junior  Republic,  and  similar 

166 


topics — can  be  made  use  of,  not  only  in  relating  the  pupil  to  the  best 
of  the  life  of  his  time,  but  in  showing  him  that  the  style  of  a  piece  is  of 
service  to  the  cause  presented.  In  this  he  sees  a  practical  reason  for  the 
study  of  English.  He  learns  that  such  study  is  needed  to  perfect  a  social 
being  and  to  make  of  him  a  citizen  of  the  world. 

In  the  upper  high  school  the  problem  is  a  different  one  from  that  of  the 
lower  high  school.  Here  the  boys  and  girls  are  not  only  preparing  to  be 
potentialities  in  the  business  world  and  social  life,  but  they  already  feel  them- 
selves to  be  a  part  of  that  life.  The  tide  of  the  greater  outside  world  flows 
through  the  high  school,  and  though  it  is  there  only  in  creeks  and  bays,  it  is 
the  same  salt  and  tonic  element  that  pervades  the  ocean  outside.  The  high 
school  pupils  have  their  party  strifes  and  prejudices,  their  social  gatherings, 
their  student  government,  their  public  press,  their  dramatic  entertainments. 
The  problem  that  presents  itself  to  the  English  department  is  this:  How  can 
the  literature  and  composition  be  made  to  fix  the  attention  of  the  pupils  on 
the  permanent  soul  of  beauty  and  excellence  underlying  these  "shows"  of 
things,  and  also  equip  them  with  the  means  of  moving  with  confident  ease 
and  power  in  the  life  of  their  fellows?  How  can  we  widen  their  vistas  of  Hfe 
and  make  attractive  to  them  the  enduring  ideals  of  humanity?  If  the  study 
of  English  can  make  them  self-poised  individuals  and  social  centers  in  the 
school  life,  they  will  continue  to  be  such,  whether  they  are  graduated  from 
the  high  school  into  the  university  or  into  business. 

The  composition  of  the  upper  high  school,  besides  emphasizing,  through- 
out the  three  years,  by  continual  practice,  oral  and  written,  and  by  continual 
analysis,  the  principles  and  habits  of  a  correct  and  vigorous  style,  begins 
now  to  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of  individual  pupils  and  of  small  classes  of 
pupils.  *  *  * 

Whatever  the  special  form  of  the  composition  may  be,  two  principles  are 
adhered  to:  That  nothing  which  lacks  sincerity  is  worth  saying;  and  that 
whatever  is  worth  saying,  is  worth  saying  well. 

Training  in  the  use  of  the  public  library,  debating,  presentation  of  class 
plays,  the  reading  and  writing  of  short  stories,  the  study  of  high  school  journal- 
ism '(its  problems,  materials,  arrangements,  and  management)  are  all  features 
of  the  new  high  school  course  in  English,  and  are  related  to  the  spontaneous 
school  activities  of  the  pupils. 

To  give  the  pupils  the  background  of  our  literary  past  and  the  large 
perspective  that  comes  from  looking  at  life  through  the  eyes  of  such  great 
masters  as  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  Addison,  Burke,  Macauley,  and  Webster, 
is  the  definite  purpose  of  the  course  in  literature. 

Two  truths  are  gained  from  this  study:  First,  that  all  the  greatest  writers 
were  essentially  democrats  and  expressed  freely  the  growing  ideals  of  their 
time;  and  second,  that  since  life  is  the  field  of  literature,  our  own  time  must 
possess  a  literature  of  far  more  transcendent  importance  to  us  than  any  litera- 
ture of  the  past. 

From  these  two  truths  the  pupils  are  led  to  a  third.  It  is  this:  They  can 
assist  in  making  literature  of  their  generation  a  noble  one,  both  directly  and 
indirectly;   directly,  if  they  have  creative  literary  instinct;  indirectly,  if  they 

157 


have  the  morality,  the  intelligence,  and  the  sense  of  the  beauty  of  things 
which  are  necessary  to  build  up  a  special  life  worthy  of  expression  in  current 
literature.  They  make  literature  in  either  case — the  literature  itself,  or  the 
material  for  literature. 

Such  reasoning,  more  or  less  conscious  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  forms 
the  basis  for  the  comparative  study  of  the  old  masterpieces  and  current  litera- 
ture, even  in  its  modern  and  vital  form,  the  periodical.  The  study  of  the 
early  novel  culminates  in  the  supplementary  reading  of  one  of  to-day's  best 
novels.  The  study  of  the  eighteenth  century  essay  culminates  in  the  study 
of  the  articles  in  our  best  magazines.  The  study  of  Shakespeare  culminates 
in  the  reading  of  Maeterlinck's  Blue  Bird.  The  study  of  Milton's  Sonnets 
culminates  in  the  reading  of  Richard  Watson  Gilder's  Sonnets. 

If  the  pupils  should  have  no  further  schooling,  they  would  leave  the 
high  school  furnished  with  the  touchstone  of  true  literature.  They  would  be 
able  to  discriminate  between  what  is  worthy  of  study  in  modern  writing, 
because  it  nobly  expresses  the  elevated  and  enduring  aspects  of  our  present 
social  life,  and  what  is  worthy  of  only  cursory  reading  because  it  expresses, 
without  the  strength  of  art,  the  transitory  aspects. 

It  has  too  long  been  taken  for  granted  that  only  future  generations  can 
separate  the  wheat  from  the  chaff  in  the  literature  of  the  epoch.  Even  in 
the  upper  high  school  some  literary  connoisseurship  can  be  acquired,  which 
maturity  of  years  and  habitual  reading  will  ripen.  The  cultivation  of  this 
literary  art  sense  in  order  to  apply  it  to  some  present-day  literature  is  an 
important  practical  result  of  the  study  of  literature.  The  to-day  of  literature 
should  be  made  ours  as  well  as  the  yesterday,  for  through  it  we  enter  into  the 
richest  part  of  the  life  of  our  times. 

In  our  English  course  we  have  tried  to  keep  in  mind  that  if  these  young 
people  had  elected  business  life  or  domestic  life  instead  of  school  life,  they 
would  have  found  these  years  between  the  ages  of  16  and  18  full  of  novel 
experience  and  shot  through  with  the  glory  of  doing  things.  Days  of  work 
in  shop  or  office  would  have  been  paid  for  in  money  instead  of  with  credits, 
and  some  of  that  money  would  have  been  transmuted  into  evening  pleasures. 
Days  of  housework  would  have  shown  tangible  results  in  dainty  cookery  or 
in  neat  furnishings,  or  in  the  pride  of  entertainment.  So,  if  the  high  school 
robs  the  youth  of  the  rich  experience  that  active  life  in  the  world  affords,  it 
must  offer  a  golden  substitute  that  shall  place  the  youth,  on  graduation, 
where  he  would  have  been  with  such  world  experience,  but  place  him  there 
equipped  with  keener  vision,  with  warmer  heart,  and  with  readier  hand,  because 
of  his  education. 

The  English  course  must  do  its  share,  and  a  large  one,  in  bringing  about 
this  result.  English  teachers  are  only  beginning  to  work  out  this  new  social 
plan  in  the  study  of  literature  and  composition.  *  *  * 

There  is  no  reason  for  opening  the  door  to  science,  to  mathematics,  to 
history,  to  literature,  from  this  point  of  view,  and  locking  it  against  languages. 
Many  men  and  women  secure  their  livelihood,  directly  or  indirectly,  through 
their  special  knowledge  of  language,  just  as  there  are  many  workers  in  each 
of  the  other  departments  whose  special  technical  knowledge  brings  them 

158 


financial  recompense.  The  world  needs  the  scholar  quite  as  much  as  it  needs 
the  artisan  and  the  man  of  general  business.  The  public  school,  if  it  function 
to  the  maximum  in  the  life  of  the  individual  as  well  as  of  society,  must  make 
it  possible  for  the  potential  artisan,  the  potential  scientist,  the  potential 
linguist,  to  find  himself.  In  theory,  at  least,  the  school  should  be  able  to 
open  the  eyes  of  every  individual,  that  he  may  have  a  vision  of  himself  in  the 
completeness  of  his  powers.  This  reason  alone  is  sufficient  to  justify  the 
offering  of  study  in  the  field  of  language,  though  such  study  should  not  be 
made  compulsory  upon  all  nor  should  it  be  continued  beyond  the  point  when 
it  is  clear  that  the  individual  possesses  no  aptitude  or  liking  for  it. 

The  earlier  in  the  life  of  the  pupil  that  this  chance  be  given  the  better, 
for  the  golden  hour  of  language  study  comes  early,  and  when  once  passed  the 
acquisition  of  a  foreign  tongue  is  well-nigh  impossible.  The  seventh  grade 
is  not  too  early  for  the  beginning  of  such  study;  indeed,  if  it  were  practicable, 
an  earlier  beginning  than  this  even  is  desirable.  However,  by  commencing 
with  the  seventh  grade  and  continuing  throughout  the  full  secondary  period 
of  six  or  eight  years,  a  high  degree  of  mastery  can  be  secured  by  those  who 
develop  an  interest  in  such  study.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  this  work 
should  be  directed  by  a  vivacious  teacher,  who  speaks  the  language  fluently, 
and  that  the  grammar  of  the  language  should  be  kept  incidental  and  unob- 
strusive."  (23) 


(23)  McLean,  pp.  153-158. 


159 


Part  VI. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A:  1—2. 

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Butcher,  M.  B.  London,  Macmillan  Company,  Limited,  New 
York:  The  Macmillan  Company.  Fourth  Edition.  1907. 
(The  Poetics  of  Aristotle  is*  also  found  in  Aristotle's  Theory 
of  Poetry  and  Fine  Arts.  Edited  by  S.  H.  Butcher,  Litt.  D., 
LL.  D.     Third  edition,  1902.) 

2.  Arnold,  Matthew.     Culture  and  Anarchy,  pp.  X,  XIII,  7.    London, 

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4.  Bennett,    Arnold.    Literary   Taste — How   to    Form    It,    pp.    68,69. 

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8.  Chubb,  Percival.     The  Teaching  of  English.     General  Aims:     Char- 

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D:   10—11. 

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11.  De  Quincey,  Thomas.     Leaders  in  Literature  with  a  notice  of  Tradi- 

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14.  Gayley,  Charles  Mills.     Literary  Criticism,  pp.  222-228.     Ginn  & 

Co.,  Boston.     1910. 

15.  Gayley,  Charles  Mills.    Classical  Myths — In  Literature  and  Art, 

pp.  XXX-XXXIII— 7.  Ginn  and  Company,  Boston,  New 
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16.  Gayler,  G.  W.     Vocational  Guidance  in  the  high  school.    Psychological 

Clinic.     9:161-66.     Nov.  15.     1915. 

H:  17—20. 

17.  Hall,  G.  Stanley.    Adolescence.    V.  II,  pp.  442-446-456;    34-74-508. 

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18.  Harper's  Weekly.    The  Value  of  Words.    L.  E.  W.  57:5.    July,  1916. 

19.  Hosic,  James  F.     Elementary  Course  in  English,  pp.  4-7. 

20.  JuDD,  Charles  Hubbard.     Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects.    Grave 

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L:  21—22. 

21.  LONGINUS.     On  the  Sublime.     Translated  by  A.  0.  Pickard.     Oxford 

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Choice  of  Words,  p.  55.    The  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford.    1906. 

22.  LuCKEY,  G.  W.  A.     Professional  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers  in  the 

U.  S.  Elementary  and  Secondary  Teachers,  pp.  233-236. 
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M:  23—24. 

23.  McLean,  Fannie.     Purposes  and  Content  of  the  English  Courses  in 

Berkeley  Schools,  pp.  153,  157  U  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
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24.  MuNN  &  Company.     Trade  Marks.     Trade  Names,  pp.  1-6-23.     New 

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N:  25—27. 

25.  Nebraska  High  School  Manual.    Supplement  in  English  to  Bulletin 

of  The  University  of  Nebraska,  pp.  24,  26,  28,  7,  8,  9,  10.  1914. 

26.  Nutting,  H.  C.     Cultural  and  Vocational   (Editorial).     The  Classical 

Journal,  1 1 :65-8.  N.  '15.  No.  2.  University  of  Chicago  Press. 
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27.  Nye,   Irene.     The   Genetic   View-point  of  Language  Teaching.     The 

Classical  Journal,  vol.  XI,  No.  7,  p.  428.  April,  1916. 
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28.  Pound,   Louise.     Word-Coinage   and   Modern   Trade-Names.     Dialect 

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Taylor  Company.     New  Haven,  Conn.     1913. 

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Industrial  Education,  pp.  412-696.  Bulletin  No.  21.  C.  A. 
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31.  Utah,  Salt  Lake  City.     E.  P.  Cubberly  and  Staff.    Authorized  by 

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32.  Virginia,  Richmond.     Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. 

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166 


INDEX  OF  NAMES* 


PAGES 
A 

Aristotle 47 

Arnold,  Matthew 48,  67,  70,  81 

B 

Bates,  Arlo 71,  121-123 

Bennett,  Arnold 13 

Bergson,  M.  Henri 70 

Berkeley,  California 58,  59 

Bible 70 

Bonser,  Frederick  G 51-53 

Browning,  Mrs 51 

Browning,  Robert 52,  70,  75 

Bryant,  W.  C 52,  70 

Burke,  Edmund 80,  140-142 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray 45-47 


Carlyle,  Thomas 51 

Carpenter,  Baker  &  Scott 11,  12 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey 45 

Chubb,  Percival 49 

Coleridge,  Samuel  T 13 

Commercial  Clubs 40-44 

D 

Davis,  J.  B 17-19 

De  Quincey 12,  13,  19 


PAGES 


H 


Harper's  Weekly 69,  70 

Hardy,  Thomas 76 

Hall,  G.  Stanley 45,  46,  53 

Hampton  Institute,  Va 47-49 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel 71 

Haslitt 13 

Herbert,  George 64 

Hood,  Thomas 51 

Horace  Mann  School 45 

Household  Arts 16 

Hosic,  James 47 

Hugo,  Victor , 52 

I 

Ibsen 45 

Industrial  Arts 58,  83 

J  / 

James,  Henry 70 

Judd,  Charles 73,  150-152 

K 

Keats,  John 67,  70,  72 

KipHng,  Rudyard 51,  73-75 


Eliott,  Charles  W 63,  64 

Eliot,  George 52 

Emerson,  R.  W 52,  64 


Fordyce,  Charles 45 

Ford,  Paul  Leicester 11 

France 70 


Gayley,  CM 80,  81 

Gaylor,  G.  W 50,  51 

Graves,  C.  I.  M 75 


Lincoln,  Abraham 19,  70 

Longinus 64,  68,  80 

Los  Angeles,  CaHf ornia 58,  59 

Luckey,  G.  W.  A 60 

Lyttle,  E.  W 17 

M 

Maeterlinck 69 

Maupassant 77 

McLean,  Fannie 155-159 

Munn  &  Co 66,  67 

Murray,  Sir  James 70 

Muller,  Max 70 


♦Index  of  subjects  is  found  in  the  Bibliography. 

167 


PAGES 
N 

N.  Joint  Committee 13,  33,  47 

Nelson,  Ernesto 63 

Nutting,  H.C 147-149 

Nye,  Irene, 137-139 

P 

Parsons,  Frank. . : ,   18 

Pater,  Walter '  69 

Pound,  Louise 143-146 

Practical  Arts 16,  58 

Public  School  Surveys 23-33 

Spencer,  Herbert 46,  69,  70 

Stevenson,  R.  L 75 

Stuff,  F.  A ...   90 

Supplement  in  English.  .65,  66,  75-77 
Swineburne,  A.  C 69,  70 

Q 

Questionnaire  "A" 34-40 

Questionnaire  "B" 40-44 

R 

Ruskin,  John 65 

S 

Sainte-Beauve 48 

Scott,  Walter 45 

Shakespeare,  William 45,  70,  72 

Shelley,  P.  B 72,  73 

Sherman,  L.  A 65,  66,  71, 

76-79,  119-120 


PAGES 

S 

Sherwood,  Margaret 46,  47 

Snedden,  David. 15,  16 

T 

Teaching  Literature 71 

Technical  Arts 58,  82 

Tennyson,  Alfred 64,  70,  71 

The  Nation 70,  71 

Thomas,  C.  Swain 62,  124-136 

Tolstoi,  Lyof  N 79,  80 

Turgenev 78 

U 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 59-63 

U.  S.  Bulletin  of  Education 6-17 

U.  S.  Department  of  Labor 33 

University  Studies 69 

Vocational  Guidance 49 

W 

Wilson,  Woodrow 75,  76 

Wilson;  H.  B 153,  154 

Wolfe,  Harry  K 69 

X 

Xenophon 80 

Y 

Yale  College 14 


168 


Th 


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ocr 


^^ 


^<5 


NOV  1 4  1948 

NOV  3  0  1946 

OCT  3 1  mo 

NOV  19  ^951 
DEC  3      1951 


JUti 


3  1952 


JUL  28  1954  5  IBS 


6G7338 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


